is of larger signification than the word “man,” and comprehendeth it; and the names "man" and "rational," are of equal extent, comprehending mutually one another. But here we must take notice, that by a name is not always understood, as in grammar, one only word; but sometimes, by circumlocution, many words together. For all these words, "he that in his actions observeth the laws of his country," make but one name, equiva lent to this one word, "just."

By this imposition of names, some of larger, some of stricter signification, we turn the reckoning of the consequences of things imagined in the mind, into a reckoning of the consequences of appellations. For example: a man that hath no use of speech at all, such as is born and remains perfectly deaf and dumb, if he set before his eyes a triangle, and by it two right angles, such as are the corners of a square figure, he may, by meditation, compare and find, that the three angles of that triangle, are equal to those two right angles that stand by it. But if another triangle be shown him, different in shape from the former, he cannot know, without a new labour, whether the three angles of that also be equal to the same. But he that hath the use of words, when he observes, that such equality was consequent, not to the length of the sides, nor to any other particular thing in his triangle; but only to this, that the sides were straight, and the angles three; and that that was all, for which he named it a triangle; will boldly conclude universally, that such equality of angles is in all triangles whatsoever; and register his invention in these general terms, "every triangle hath its three angles equal to two right angles." And thus the consequence found in one particular, comes to be registered and remembered, as a universal rule, and discharges our mental reckoning, of time and place, and delivers us from all labour of the mind, saving the first, and makes that which was found true "here," and "now," to be true in "all times" and "places."

But the use of words in registering our thoughts is in nothing so evident as in numbering. A natural fool that could never learn by heart the order of numeral words, as "one," "two,” and “three,” may observe every stroke of the clock, and nod to it, or say "one,'" "one," "one," but can never know what hour it strikes. And it seems, there was a time when those names of number were not in use; and men were fain to apply their fingers of one or both hands, to those things they desired to keep account of; and that thence it proceeded, that now our numeral words are but ten, in any nation, and in some but five; and then they begin again. And he that can tell ten, if he recite them out of order, will lose himself, and not know when he has done. Much less will he be able to add, and subtract, and perform all other operations of arithmetic. So that without words there is no possibility of reckoning of numbers; much less of magnitudes, of swiftness, of force, and other things, the reckonings whereof are necessary to the being, or wellbeing of mankind.

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When two names are joined together into a consequence, or affirmation, as thus, "a man is a living creature ;"or thus, "if he be a man, he is a living creature ;" if the latter name, living creature," signify all that the former name man" signifieth, then the affirmation, or consequence, is “ true;" otherwise "false." For "true" and "false" are attributes of speech, not. of things. And where speech is not, there is neither "truth nor "falsehood;" error "there may be, as when we expect that which shall not be, or suspect what has not been; but in neither case can a man be charged with untruth.

Seeing then that truth consisteth in the right ordering of names in our affirmations, a man that seeketh precise truth had need to remember what every name he uses stands for, and to place it accordingly, or else he will find himself entangled in words, as a bird in lime twigs, the more he strug.

gles the more belimed. And therefore in geometry, which is the only science that it hath pleased God hitherto to bestow on mankind, men begin at settling the significations of their words; which settling of significations they call "definitions," and place them in the beginning of their reckoning. By this it appears how necessary it is for any man that aspires to true knowledge, to examine the definitions of former authors; and either to correct them, where they are negligently set down, or to make them himself. For the errors of definitions multiply themselves according as the reckoning proceeds, and lead men into absurdities, which at last they see, but cannot avoid, without reckoning anew from the beginning, in which lies the foundation of their errors. From whence it happens, that they which trust to books do as they that cast up many little sums into a greater, without considering whether those little sums were rightly cast up or not; and at last finding the error visible, and not mistrusting their first grounds, know not which way to clear themselves, but spend time in fluttering over their books; as birds that entering by the chimney, and finding themselves enclosed in a chamber, flutter at the false fight of a glass window, for want of wit to consider which way they came in. So that in the right definition of names lies the first use of speech; which is the acquisition of science: and in wrong, or no definitions, lies the first abuse; from which proceed all false and senseless tenets; which make those men that take their instruction from the authority of books, and not from their own meditation, to be as much below the condition of ignorant men, as men endued with true science are above it. For between true science and erroneous doctrines, ignorance is in the middle. Natural sense and imagination are not subject to absurdity. Nature itself cannot err; and as men abound in copiousness of language, so they become more wise, or more mad than ordinary. Nor is it possible without letters for any man to become either excellently wise, or, unless his memory be hurt by disease or ill eonstitution of organs, excellently foolish. For words are wise men's counters, they do but reckon by them; but they are the money of fools, that value them by the authority of an Aristotle, a Cicero, or a Thomas, or any other doctor whatsoever, if but a man.

Subject to names," is whatsoever can enter into or be considered in an account, and be added one to another to make a sum, or subtracted one from another and leave a remainder. The Latins called accounts of money rationes, and accounting ratiocinatio; and that which we in bills or books of account call "items," they call nomina, that is "names ;" and thence it seems to proceed, that they extended the word "ratio" to the faculty of reckoning in all other things. The Greeks have but one word, Xoyog, for both "speech" and "reason;" not that they thought there was no speech without reason, but no reasoning without speech: and the act of reasoning they called "syllogism," which signifieth summing up of the consequences of one saying to another. And because the same thing may enter into account for divers accidents, their names are, to show that diversity, diversely wrested and diversified. This diversity of names may be reduced to four general heads.

First, a thing may enter into account for "matter" or "body;" as "living," "sensible,' "rational," "hot,' "cold," "moved," "quiet; with all which names the word "matter" or 'body," is understood; all such being names of matter.

Secondly, it may enter into account, or be considered, for some accident or quality which we conceive to be in it; as for "being moved," for "being so long," for "being hot," &c. ; and then, of the name of the thing itself, by a little change or wresting, we make a name for that accident, which we consider; and for "living" put into the account "life;" for "moved,' "motion;" for "hot," "heat;" for "long," "length," and the like: and

all such names are the names of the accidents and properties by which one matter and body is distinguished from another. These are called "names abstract," because severed, not from matter, but from the account of matter.

Thirdly, we bring into account the properties of our own bodies, whereby we make such distinction; as when anything is seen by us, we reckon not the thing itself, but the sight, the colour, the idea of it in the fancy: and when anything is heard, we reckon it not, but the hearing or sound only, which is our fancy or conception of it by the ear; and such are names of fancies.

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Fourthly, we bring into account, consider, and give names, to "names themselves, and to "speeches :" for "general," "universal," "special," "equivocal," are names of names. And "affirmation," "interrogation,' "commandment," 66 narration," 'syllogism," "sermon," "oration," and many other such, are names of speeches. And this is all the variety of names "positive;" which are put to mark somewhat which is in Nature, or may be feigned by the mind of man, as bodies that are, or may be conceived to be; or of bodies, the properties that are, or may be feigned to be; or words and speech.

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There be also other names, called "negative," which are notes to signify that a word is not the name of the thing in question; as these words, nothing," no man,' ," "infinite," "indocible,' "three want four," and the like; which are nevertheless of use in reckoning, or in correcting of reckoning, and call to mind our past cogitations, though they be not names of anything, because they make us refuse to admit of names not rightly used.

All other names are but insignificant sounds; and those of two sorts. One when they are new, and yet their meaning not explained by definition; whereof there have been abundance coined by schoolmen, and puzzled philosophers.

Another, when men make a name of two names, whose significations are contradictory and inconsistent; as this name, an “incorporeal body," or, which is all one, an "incorporeal substance," and a great number more. For whensoever any affirmation is false, the two names of which it is composed, put together and made one, signity nothing at all. For example, if it be a false affirmation to say "a quadrangle is round," the word "round quadrangle" signifies nothing, but is a mere sound. So likewise, if it be false to say that virtue can be poured, or blown up and down, the words "inpoured virtue," "inblown virtue," are as absurd and insignificant as a "round quadrangle." And therefore you shall hardly meet with a senseless and insignificant word, that is not made up of some Latin or Greek names. A Frenchman seldom hears our Saviour called by the name of parole, but by the name of verbe often; yet verbe and parole differ no more, but that one is Latin, the other French.

When a man, upon the hearing of any speech, hath those thoughts which the words of that speech and their connection were ordained and consti. tuted to signify, then he is said to understand it: "understanding being nothing else but conception caused by speech. And therefore if speech be peculiar to man, as for aught I know it is, then is understanding peculiar to him also. And therefore of absurd and false affirmations, in case they be universal, there can be no understanding; though many think they understand then, when they do but repeat the words softly, or con them in their mind.

What kinds of speeches signify the appetites, aversions, and passions of man's mind; and of their use and abuse, I shall speak when I have spoken of the passions.

The names of such things as affect us, that is, which please and displease us, because all men be not alike affected with the same thing, nor the same man at all times, are in the common discourses of men of "inconstant " signification. For seeing all names are imposed to signify our conceptions, and all our affections are but conceptions, when we conceive the same things differently, we can hardly avoid different naming of them. For though the nature of that we conceive, be the same; yet the diversity of our reception of it, in respect of different constitutions of body, and prejudices of opinion, gives everything a tincture of our different passions. And therefore in reasoning a man must take heed of words; which besides the signification of what we imagine of their nature, have a signification also of the nature, disposition, and interest of the speaker; such as are the names of virtues and vices; for one man calleth "wisdom," what another calleth "fear;" and one cruelty," what another "justice;" one “prodigality," what another "magnanimity;" and one “gravity," what another "stupidity," &c. And therefore such names can never be true grounds of any ratiocination. No more can metaphors, and tropes of speech; but these are less dangerous, because they profess their inconstancy; which the other do not.

CHAPTER V.'

Of Reason and Science.

WHEN a man reasoneth," he does nothing else but conceive a sum total, from "addition" of parcels; or conceive a remainder, from "subtraction of one sum from auother; which, if it be done by words, is conceiving of the consequence of the names of all the parts, to the name of the whole; or from the names of the whole and one part, to the name of the other part. And though in some things, as in numbers, besides adding and subtracting, men name other operations, as "multiplying" and "dividing," yet they are the same; for multiplication is but adding together of things equal; and division but subtracting of one thing, as often as we can. These operations are not incident to numbers only, but to all manner of things that can be added together, and taken one out of another. For as arithmeticians teach to add and subtract in "numbers," so the geometricians teach the same in "lines," "figures," solid and superficial, "angles," proportions," "times," degrees of "swiftness," "force," 'power," and the like; the logicians teach the same in "consequences of words," adding together two "names" to make an "affirmation," and two "affirmations to make a "syllogism;" and "many syllogisms" to make a "demonstration ;" and from the "sum," or "conclusion" of a "syllogism," they subtract one "proposition to find the other. Writers of politics add together pactions" to find men's "duties;" and lawyers "laws" and "facts," to find what is "right" and "wrong" in the actions of private men. In sum, in what matter soever there is place for “addition " and "subtraction," there also is place for "reason ;" and where these have no place, there" reason has nothing at all to do.

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Out of all which we may define, that is to say determine, what that is, which is meant by this word "reason," when we reckon it amongst the faculties of the mind. For "reason," in this sense, is nothing but "reckoning," that is adding and subtracting, of the consequences of general names agreed upon for the "marking" and "signifying" of our thoughts; I say marking" them when we reckon by ourselves, and "signifying," when we demonstrate or approve our reckonings to other men.

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And, as in arithmetic, unpractised men must, and professors themselves may often, err, and cast up false; so also in any other subject of reasoning, the ablest, most attentive, and most practised men may deceive themselves, and infer false conclusions; not but that reason itself is always right reason, as well as arithmetic is a certain and infallible art: but no one man's reason, nor the reason of any one number of men, makes the certainty; no more than an account is therefore well cast up, because a great many men have unanimously approved it. And therefore, as when there is a controversy in an account, the parties must by their own accord set up, for right reason, the reason of some arbitrator, or judge, to whose sentence they will both stand, or their controversy must either come to blows, or be undecided, for want of a right reason constituted by Nature; so is it also in all debates of what kind soever. And when men that think themselves wiser than ail others, clamour and demand right reason for judge, yet seek no more, but that things should be determined by no other men's reason but their own, it is as intolerable in the society of men, as it is in play after trump is turned, to use for trump on every occasion, that suit whereof they have most in their hand. For they do nothing else, that will have every of their passions, as it comes to bear sway in them, to be taken for right reason, and that in their own controversies: bewraying their want of right reason, by the claim they lay to it.

The use and end of reason is not the finding of the sum and truth of one, or a few consequences, remote from the first definitions, and settled significations of names, but to begin at these, and proceed from one consequence to another. For there can be no certainty of the last conclusion, without a certainty of all those affirmations and negations on which it was grounded and inferred. As when a master of a family, in taking an account, casteth up the sums of all the bills of expense into one sum, and not regarding how each bill is summed up by those that give them in account, nor what it is he pays for, he advantages himself no more than if he allowed the account in gross, trusting to every of the accountants' skill and honesty: so also in reasoning of all other things, he that takes up conclusions on the trust of authors, and doth not fetch them from the first items in every reckoning, which are the significations of names settled by definitions, loses his labour, and does not know anything, but only believeth.

When a man reckons without the use of words, which may be done in particular things, as when upon the sight of any one thing, we conjecture what was likely to have preceded, or is likely to follow upon it; if that which he thought likely to follow, follows not, or that which he thought likely to have preceded it, hath not preceded it, this is called "error ;" to which even the most prudent men are subject. But when we reason in words of general signification, and fall upon a general inference which is false, though it be commonly called "error," it is indeed an "absurdity,' or senseless speech. For error is but a deception, in presuming that somewhat is past, or to come; of which, though it were not past, or not to come, yet there was no impossibility discoverable. But when we make a general assertion, unless it be a true one, the possibility of it is inconceivable. And words whereby we conceive nothing but the sound, are those we call "absurd," "insignificant," and "nonsense." And therefore if a man should talk to me of a "round quadrangle ;" or, "accidents of bread in cheese; or, "immaterial substances; or of "a free subject;""a free will;" or any "free," but free from being hindered by opposition, I should not say he were in an error, but that his words were without meaning, that is to say, absurd.

I have said before, in the second chapter, that a man did excel all other animals in this faculty, that when he conceived anything whatsoever, he