passion of love." The same, with fear that the love is not mutual, jealousy."

"Desire," by doing hurt to another, to make him condemn some fact of his own, "revengefulness."

"Desire" to know why, and how, "curiosity;" such as is in no living creature but "man:" so that man is distinguished, not only by his reason, but also by this singular passion from other "animals; in whom the appetite of food, and other pleasures of sense, by predominance, take away the care of knowing causes; which is a lust of the mind, that by a perseverance of delight in the continual and indefatigable generation of knowledge, exceedeth the short vehemence of any carnal pleasure.

And when the

"Fear" of power invisible, feigned by the mind, or imagined from tales publicly allowed, "religion;" not allowed "superstition." power imagined, is truly such as we imagine, "true religion."

"Fear," without the apprehension of why, or what, " panic terror," called so from the fables that make Pan the author of them; whereas in truth, there is always in him that so feareth, first, some apprehension of the cause, though the rest run away by example, every one supposing his fellow to know why. And therefore this passion happens to none but in a throng, or multitude of people.

"Joy," from apprehension of novelty, "admiration;" proper to man, because it excites the appetite of knowing the cause.

"Joy," arising from imagination of a man's own power and ability, is that exultation of the mind which is called "glorying:" which if grounded upon the experience of his own former actions, is the same with "confidence:" but if grounded on the flattery of others, or only supposed by himself, for delight in the consequences of it, is called "vain-glory:" which name is properly given; because a well-grounded "confidence" begetteth attempt; whereas the supposing of power does not, and is therefore rightly called "vain."

"Grief," from opinon of want of power, is called "dejection" of mind. The "vain-glory' which consisteth in the feigning or supposing of abilities in ourselves, which we know are not, is most incident to young men, and nourished by the histories or fictions of gallant persons; and is corrected oftentimes by age, and employment.

"Sudden glory," is the passion which maketh those "grimaces" called "laughter; and is caused either by some sudden act of their own, that pleaseth them; or by tho apprehension of some deformed thing in another, by comparison whereof they suddenly applaud themselves. And it is incident most to them, that are conscious of the fewest abilities in themselves; who are forced to keep themselves in their own favour, by observing the imperfections of other men. And therefore much laughter at the defects of others, is a sign of pusillanimity.. For cf great minds, one of the proper works is, to help and free others from scorn; and compare themselves only with the most able.

On the contrary, "sudden dejection," is the passion that causeth "weeping;" and is caused by such accidents, as suddenly take away some vehement hope, or some prop of their power and they are most subject to it, that rely principally on helps external, such as are women and children. Thererore some weep for the loss of friends; others for their unkindness; others for the sudden stop made to their thoughts of revenge, by reconciliation. But in all cases, both laughter, and weeping, are sudden motions; custom taking them both away. For no man laughs at old jests; or weeps for an old calamity.

"Grief," for the discovery of some defect of ability, is "shame," or the passion that discovereth itself in "blushing:" and consisteth in the appre

hension of something dishonourable; and in young men is a sign of the love of good reputation, and commendable: in old men it is a sign of the same; but because it comes too late, not commendable.

The "contempt" of good reputation is called "impudence."

"Grief," for the calamity of another, is "pity;" and ariseth from the imagination that the like calamity may befall himself; and therefore is called also "compassion," and in the phrase of this present time a "fellowfeeling" and therefore for calamity arriving from great wickedness, the best men have the least pity; and for the same calamity, those hate pity, that think themselves least obnoxious to the same.

"Contempt," or little sense of the calamity of others, is that which men call "cruelty;" proceeding from security of their own fortune. For, that any man should take pleasure in other men's great harms, without other end of his own, I do not conceive it possible.

"Grief," for the sucdess of a competitor in wealth, honour, or other good, if it be joined with endeavour to enforce our own abilities to equal or exceed him, is called "emulation;" but joined with endeavour to supplant, or hinder a competitor, "envy.'

When in the mind of man, appetites, and aversions, hopes, and fears, concerning one and the same thing, arise alternately; and divers good and evil consequences of the doing, or omitting the thing propounded, come successively into our thoughts; so that sometimes we have an appetite to it; sometimes an aversion from it; sometimes hope to be able to do it; sometimes despair, or fear to attempt it; the whole sum of desires, aversions, hopes and fears continued till the thing be either done, or thought impassible, is that we call "deliberation."

Therefore of things past, there is no "deliberation;" because manifestly impossible to be changed: nor of things known to be impossible, or thought so; because men know, or think, such deliberation vain. But of things impossible, which we think possible, we may deliberate; not knowing it is in vain. And it is called "deliberation;" because it is a putting an end to the "liberty" we had of doing or omitting according to our own appetite, or aversion.

This alternate succession of appetites, aversions, hopes and fears, is no less in other living creatures than in man: and therefore beasts also deliberate.

Every "deliberation" is then said to "end," when that whereof they deliberate, is either done or thought impossible; because till then we retain the liberty of doing or omitting, according to our appetite, or aversion.

For a

In "deliberation," the last appetite, or aversion, immediately adhering to the action, or to the omission thereof, is that we call the "will," the act, not the faculty, of "willing." And beasts that have "deliberation," must necessarily also have "will." The definition of the "will," given commonly by the schools, that it is a "rational appetite," is not good. For if it were, then could there be no voluntary act against reason. "voluntary act" is that which proceedeth from the "will," and no other. But if instead of a rational appetite, we shall say an appetite resulting from a precedent deliberation, then the definition is the same that I have given here. Will, therefore, is the last appetite in deliberating. And though we say in common discourse, a man had a will once to do a thing, that nevertheless he forbore to do; yet that is properly but an inclination, which makes no action voluntary; because the action depends not of it, but of the last inclination or appetite. For if the intervenient appetites, make any action voluntary; then by the same reason, all intervenient aversions should make the same action involuntary; and so one and the same action should be both voluntary and involuntary.

By this it is manifest, that not only actions that have their beginning from covetousness, ambition, lust, or other appetites to the thing propounded; but also those that have their beginning from aversion, or fear of those consequences that follow the omission, are voluntary actions."

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The forms of speech by which the passions are expressed, are partly the same, and partly different from those, by which we express our thoughts. And first, generally all passions may be expressed indicatively;" as "I love," ," "I fear," "I joy," "I deliberate," "I will," "I command:" but some of them have particular expressions by themselves, which nevertheless are not affirmations, unless it be when they serve to make other inferences, besides that of the passion they proceed from. Deliberation is expressed "subjunctively; "which is a speech proper to signify suppositions, with their consequences: as, "if this be done, then this will follow;" and differs not from the language of reasoning, save that reasoning is in general words; but deliberation for the most part is of particulars. The language of desire, and aversion, is "imperative;" as "do this," "forbear that which when the party is obliged to do, or forbear, is command;" otherwise "prayer; or else "counsel." The language of vain-glory, of indignation, pity and revengefulness, "optative:" but of the desire to know, there is a peculiar expression, called "interrogative;" as, "what is it," "when shall it," ," "how is it done," and "why so?" other language of the passions I find none: for cursing, swearing, reviling, and the like, do not signify as speech; but as the actions of a tongue accustomed.

These forms of speech, I say, are expressions, or voluntary significations of our passions: but certain signs they be not; because they may be used arbitrarily, whether they that use them have such passions or not. The best signs of passions present, are either in the countenance, motions of the body, actions, and ends, or aims, which we otherwise know the man to have.

And because in deliberation, the appetites, and aversions, are raised by foresight of the good and evil consequences, and sequels of the action whereof we deliberate; the good or evil effect thereof dependeth on the foresight of a long chain of consequences, of which very seldom any man is able to see to the end. But for so far as a man seeth, if the good in those consequences be greater than the evil, the whole chain is that which writers call "apparent," or "seeming good." And contrarily, when the evil exceedeth the good, the whole is "apparent," or "seeming evil :" so that he who hath by experience, or reason, the greatest and surest prospect of consequences, deliberates best himself; and is able when he will, to give the

best counsel unto others.

"Continual success "in obtaining those things which a man from time to time desireth, that is to say, continual prospering, is that men call "felicity;" I mean the felicity of this life. For there is no such thing as perpetual tranquility of mind, while we live here; because life itself is but motion, and can never be without desire, nor without fear, no more than without sense. What kind of felicity God hath ordained to them that devoutly honour Him, a man shall no sooner know, than enjoy; being joys, that now are as incomprehensible as the word of school-men "beatifical vision" is unintelligible.

The form of speech whereby men signify their opinion of the goodness of anything, is "praise." That whereby they signify the power and greatness of anything, is "magnifying." And that whereby they signify the opinion they have of a man's felicity, is by the Greeks called parapiμóg, for which we have no name in our tongue. And thus much is sufficient for the present purpose, to have been said of the "passions."

CHAPTER VII.

Of the Ends, or Resolutions of Discourse.

OF all "discourse," governed by desire of knowledge, there is at last an "end," either by attaining, or by giving over. And in the chain of discourse, wheresoever it be interrupted, there is an end for that time.

If the discourse be merely mental, it consisteth of thoughts that the thing will be, and will not be; or that it has been, and has not been, alternately. So that wheresoever you break off the chain of a man's discourse, you leave him in a presumption of "it will be," or, "it will not be;" or, "it has been," or, "has not been." All which is "opinion." And that which is alternate appetite, in deliberating concerning good and evil; the same is alternate opinion, in the enquiry of the truth of "past," and "future." And as the last appetitc in deliberation, is called the "will," so the last opinion in search of the truth of past, and future, is called the "judgment," or resoiute" and "final sentence of him that "discourseth." And as the whole chain of appetites alternate, in the question of good, or bad, is called "deliberation; so the whole chain of opinions alternate, in the question of true, or false, is called " doubt."

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No discourse whatsoever can end in absolute knowledge of fact, past or to come. For, as for the knowledge of fact, it is originally sense; and ever after, memory. And for the knowledge of consequence, which I have said before is called science, it is not absolute, but conditional. No man can know by discourse, that this or that is, has been, or will be; which is to know absolutely; but only, that if this be, that is; if this has been, that has been; if this shall be, that shall be; which is to know conditionally; and that not the consequence of one thing to another, but of one name of a thing to another name of the same thing.

And therefore, when the discourse is put into speech, and begins with the definitions of words, and proceeds by connection of the same into general affirmations, and of these again into syllogisms; the end or last sum is called the conclusion, aud the thought of the mind by it signified, is that conditional knowledge, or knowledge of the consequence of words, which is commonly called "science." But if the first ground of such discourse, be not definitions; or if the definitions be not rightly joined together into syllogisms, then the end or conclusion, is again "opinion," namely of the truth of somewhat said, though sometimes in absurd and senseless words, without possibility of being understood. When two or more men know of one and the same fact, they are said to be "conscious" of it one to another; which is as much as to know it together. And because such are fittest witnesses of the facts of one another, or of a third: it was, and ever will be, reputed a very evil act, for any man to speak against his "conscience : " or to corrupt or force another so to do: insomuch that the plea of conscience has been always hearkened unto very diligently in all times. Afterwards, men made use of the same word metaphorically, for the knowledge of their own secret facts, and secret thoughts; and therefore it is rhetorically said, that the conscience is a thousand witnesses. And last of all, men vehemently in love with their own new opinions, though never so absurd, and obstinately bent to maintain them, gave those their opinions also that reverenced name of conscience, as if they would have it seem unlawful to change or speak against them; and so pretend to know they are true, when they know at most, but that they think so.

When a man's discourse beginneth not at definitions, it beginneth either

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at some other contemplation of his own, and then it is still called opinion; or it beginneth at some saying of another, of whose ability to know the truth, and of whose honesty in not deceiving, he doubteth not: and then the discourse is not so much concerning the thing, as the person; and the resolution is called “belief,” and “faith: ""faith,” in the man, belief," both of the man, and of the truth of what he says. So that in belief are two opinions; one of the saying of the man, the other of his virtue. To "have faith in," or trust to," or "believe a man," signify the same thing; namely, an opinion of the veracity of the man: but to "believe what is said," signifieth only an opinion of the truth of the saying. But we are to observe that this phrase, "I believe in," as also the Latin, credo in, and the Greek, TOTέvw big, are never used but in the writings of divines. Instead of them, in other writings are put, "I believe him," "I trust him ;""I have faith in him;" "I rely on him ;" and in Latin credo illi, fido illi: and in Greek, πIOTÉVW aνTW: and that this singularity of the ecclesiastic use of the word hath raised many disputes about the right object of the Christian faith.

But by " believing in," as it is in the creed, is meant, not trust in the person but confession and acknowledgment of the doctrine. For not only Christians, but all manner of men do so believe in God, as to hold all for truth they hear him say, whether they understand it or not; which is all the faith and trust can possibly be had in any person whatsoever : but they do not all believe the doctrine of the creed.

From whence we may infer, that when we believe any saying whatsoever it be, to be true, from arguments taken, not from the thing itself, or from the principles of natural reason, but from the authority and good opinion we have of him that hath said it; then is the speaker, or person we believe in, or trust in, and whose word we take, the object of our faith, and the honour done in believing, is done to him only. And consequently, when we believe that the Scriptures are the word of God, having no immediate revelation from God Himself, our belief, faith, and trust is in the Church, whose word we take, and acquiesce therein, And they that believe that which a prophet relates unto them in the name of God, take the word of the prophet, do honour to him, and in him trust, and believe, touching the truth of what he relateth, whether he be a true or a false prophet. And so it is also with all other history. For if I should not believe all that is written by historians of the glorious acts of Alexander or Cæsar, I do not think the ghost of Alexander or Cæsar had any just cause to be offended, or anybody else, but the historian. If Livy say the gods made once a cow speak, and we believe it not, we distrust not God therein, but Livy. So that it is evident, that whatsoever we believe, upon no other reason than what is drawn from authority of men only, and their writings, whether they be sent from God or not, is faith in men only.

CHAPTER VIII.

Of the Virtues commonly called Intellectual, and their contrary Defects.

VIRTUE generally, in all sorts of subjects, is somewhat that is valued for eminence, and consisteth in comparison. For if all things were equal in all men, nothing would be prized. And by "virtues intellectual," are always understood such abilities of the mind as men praise, value, and desire should be in themselves; and go commonly under the name of a "good