descriptions of these engines extant; and from these various representations have been drawn, and explanations given of their mode of action; but the result has generally produced machines far too complex in their construction and manner of operation, or inadequate to the production of the required effect.

Perhaps the amount of our real knowledge as to the construction of the ancient projectile machines is only, that the three leading principles employed were those of the cross-bow, the recoil of twisted ropes, and the sling. It is probably the diversified applications of these principles, to machines differently constructed for adaptation to modified purposes, which has involved the subject in perplexity. Our cuts exhibit some applications of the two first principles mentioned. According to these, the acting power lies in two perpendicular coils of twisted rope, set apart from each other. Into these coils are inserted, horizontally, the ends of two strong levers, the remoter ends of which are connected by a rope or other strong ligature. Thus is formed a gigantic broken cross-bow, which cannot be bent, by drawing the two arms toward each other, without increasing the tension of the ropes, so as to give a tremendous recoiling power, applicable, by means of the cord, to the discharge of either a dart or a stone. Our cuts shew these

HEAD OF THE CATAPULTA, shewing the rope, levers, and springs of twisted rope, by which the discharge was effected."

respective applications too clearly to render further explanation necessary. There was, however, the other principle, of the sling, which we must not leave unnoticed. In this (the Onager) the power was still supplied by ropes; that is, two perpendicular beams set apart from each other were connected at the top by two very strong cables, between which was inserted a large tapering beam, rather crooked; and the small end of this beam, being drawn down towards the ground, had of course a most violent tendency to recoil upward. When a heavy pear-shaped bag of stones had been hung at this end, the beam was released, and flew up, discharging its burden with immense force at the enemy. Our last cut represents what was called a scorpion, being a smaller and portable kind of catapulta, but with the bow entire, and therefore without any rope coil being employed. It was essentially the same as the cross-bow, being a small machine, or rest, which enabled a strong bow to be drawn with comparative ease, and to discharge the arrow with much greater force, and with less erring aim, than would have been otherwise practicable. It

SCORPION.

seems that the same name was also borne by one of the machines for throwing pebbles and small stones.

It will be perceived from the above statement and from the figures, that the catapultæ and the balista were essentially the same in principle and action, although diversified for distinctive uses. The balista, being used for the more ponderous class of missiles, seems to have been the more cumbersome engine of the two, as its proportion in armies and fortified towns is always much inferior to that of the catapulta, whenever the two sorts of engines are dis

criminated. Livy says that the Romans took in Carthage 210 large, and more than 200 small catapultæ, and 33 large and 53 small balistæ. This is interesting in connection with the present text, as indicating the number of these engines required by a well-fortified city.

These engines varied greatly in size and power. The largest catapultæ discharged enormous javelins, or beams headed with iron, while the smaller gave immense power to lighter missiles; and the larger balista are reported to have cast enormous stones, which crushed whole houses where they fell, and both together beat down, swept away, and destroyed with an effect which we cannot well understand, and which only the united voice of antiquity could induce the modern world to believe. These engines were used both in the attack and defence of fortified places. In Josephus there are abundant references to their uses and effects, as employed in the last fatal siege of Jerusalem by the Romans. The defenders themselves had three hundred engines for throwing darts, and forty for stones -which they had taken from the Romans, and which practice taught them how to use. Some of the Roman engines were, however, far more powerful, particularly those of the tenth legion. Some of these discharged a stone weighing a talent to the distance of two furlongs, and that with such tremendous force, that not only did it destroy the foremost men, but with unspent power rushed through their masses, sweeping away whole files of them in its course. The same author, in describing the siege of Jotapata, where he commanded, says, the darts and stones were thrown by the Roman engines with such power, that numbers of people were destroyed at once. The force of the stones in particular was such, that they broke down the battlements and carried away the angles of the towers; and no body of men could be set so thickly but that one of these stones would sweep a whole file of it from one end to the other. He adds, that once a man, who was standing near him, had his head knocked off by one of these stones, thrown from a machine nearly three furlongs distant.

We have scarcely a better account of the operation of military engines than that given by Lucan; which is the more valuable for our present purpose as describing their use for the defence rather than for the assault of towns.

'Nor hands alone the missile deaths supply,

From nervous cross-bows whistling arrows fly;
The steely corslet and the bone they break,
Through multitudes their fatal journeys take;
Nor wait the lingering Parce's slow delay,
But wound, and to new slaughter wing their way.
Now by some vast machine a ponderous stone,
Pernicious, from the hostile wall is thrown;
At once, on many, swift the shock descends,
And the crush'd carcasses confounding blends.
So rolls some falling rock, by age long worn,
Loose from its root by raging whirlwinds torn,
And thundering down the precipice is borne;
O'er crashing woods the mass is seen to ride,
To grind its way, and plane the mountain's side.
Gall'd with the shot from far, the legions join,
Their bucklers in the warlike shell combine;
Compact and close the brazen roof they bear,
And in just order to the town draw near:
Safe they advance, while with unwearied pain
The wrathful engines waste their stores in vain;
High o'er their heads the destined deaths are toss'd,
And far beneath in vacant earth are lost;
Nor sudden could they change their erring aim,
Slow and unwieldy moves the cumbrous frame.
This seen, the Greeks their brawny arms employ,
And hurl a stony tempest from on high:

The clattering shower the sounding fence assails,
But vain, as when the stormy winter hails,
Nor on the solid marble roof prevails:
Till, tired at length, the warriors fall their shields;
And spent with toil, the broken phalanx yields.'
Pharsalia, lib. iii. (RowE.)

The lines we have put in italics denote, with the context, that it was a work of time and labour to alter the aim which had been given to one of these engines. The testudo, or tortoise, being a roof which the soldiers made by joining their shields over their heads, to protect themselves from the missiles thrown from the town against which they acted, is represented in a cut under Judges v. Beneath this shelter the besiegers often carried on operations fatal to the town; and it appears to be alluded to in Job xl. 15 (margin), and Ezek. xxiii. 24.

16. Went into the temple...to burn incense.'—In many ancient countries, and in some modern, the kings by virtue of their office had a right to exercise sacerdotal functions; and it best explains Uzziah's conduct to suppose that he

was stimulated by foreign example to aspire to the same privilege.

21. And dwelt in a several house.'-The Jewish writers conclude that this house was outside the town, according to the law which excluded lepers from towns. We see from this that a leper was incapable of reigning, at least while he remained a leper. It does not appear that Uzziah was properly deposed, but only deprived of the exercise of the sovereign power, which was administered by his son, as regent, and probably in his father's name. To the prodigy of the sacred text Josephus adds an earthquake, which, he says, shook the earth with such violence that the roof of the temple was rent, and one half of a mountain on the west of Jerusalem slipped, or rather fell, into the valley below, covering the royal gardens.

CHAPTER XXVII.

1 Jotham reigning well prospereth. 5 He subdueth the Ammonites. 7 His reign. 9 Ahaz succeedeth him.

JOTHAM 'was twenty and five years old when he began to reign, and he reigned sixteen years in Jerusalem. His mother's name also was Jerushah, the daughter of Zadok.

2 And he did that which was right in the sight of the LORD, according to all that his father Uzziah did: howbeit he entered not into the temple of the LORD. And the people did yet corruptly.

3 He built the high gate of the house of the LORD, and on the wall of 'Ophel he built much.

4 Moreover he built cities in the mountains of Judah, and in the forests he built castles and towers.

5 He fought also with the king of the Ammonites, and prevailed against them. And the children of Ammon gave him the same year an hundred talents of silver, and ten thousand measures of wheat, and ten thousand of barley. "So much did the children of Ammon. pay unto him, both the second year, and the third.

6 So Jotham became mighty, because he prepared his ways before the LORD his God.

7 Now the rest of the acts of Jotham, and all his wars, and his ways, lo, they are written in the book of the kings of Israel and

Judah.

8 He was five and twenty years old when he began to reign, and reigned sixteen years in Jerusalem.

9 And Jotham slept with his fathers, and they buried him in the city of David and Ahaz his son reigned in his stead.

:

CHAPTER XXVIII.

1 Ahaz reigning very wickedly is greatly afflicted by the Syrians. 6 Judah being captivated by the Israelites is sent home by the counsel of Oded the prophet. 16 Ahaz sending for aid to Assyria is not helped thereby. 22 In his distress he groweth more idolatrous. 26 He dying, Hezekiah succeedeth him.

AHAZ 'was twenty years old when he began to reign, and he reigned sixteen years in Jerusalem: but he did not that which was right in the sight of the LORD, like David his father:

2 For he walked in the ways of the kings of Israel, and made also molten images for Baalim.

3 Moreover he 'burnt incense in the valley of the son of Hinnom, and burnt "his children in the fire, after the abominations of the heathen

whom the LORD had cast out before the children of Israel.

4 He sacrificed also and burnt incense in the high places, and on the hills, and under every green tree.

5 Wherefore the LORD his God delivered him into the hand of the king of Syria; and they smote him, and carried away a great multitude of them captives, and brought them to 'Damascus. And he was also delivered into the hand of the king of Israel, who smote him with a great slaughter.

6 For Pekah the son of Remaliah slew in Judah an hundred and twenty thousand in one day, which were all 'valiant men; because they had forsaken the LORD God of their fathers.

7 And Zichri, a mighty man of Ephraim,

slew Maaseiah the king's son, and Azrikam the governor of the house, and Elkanah that was next to the king.

8 And the children of Israel carried away captive of their brethren two hundred thousand, women, sons, and daughters, and took also away much spoil from them, and brought the spoil to Samaria.

9 But a prophet of the LORD was there, whose name was Oded: and he went out before the host that came to Samaria, and said unto them, Behold, because the LORD God of your fathers was wroth with Judah, he hath delivered them into your hand, and ye have slain them in a rage that reacheth up unto heaven.

10 And now ye purpose to keep under the children of Judah and Jerusalem for bondinen and bond women unto you: but are there not with you, even with you, sins against the LORD sins against the LORD your God?

11 Now hear me therefore, and deliver the captives again, which ye have taken captive of your brethren for the fierce wrath of the LORD is upon you.

12 Then certain of the heads of the children of Ephraim, Azariah the son of Johanan, Berechiah the son of Meshillemoth, and Jehizkiah the son of Shallum, and Amasa the son of Hadlai, stood up against them that came from the war,

13 And said unto them, Ye shall not bring in the captives hither: for whereas we have offended against the LORD already, ye intend to add more to our sins and to our trespass : for our trespass is great, and there is fierce wrath against Israel.

14 So the armed men left the captives and the spoil before the princes and all the congregation.

15 And the men which were expressed by name rose up, and took the captives, and with the spoil clothed all that were naked among them, and arrayed them, and shod them, and gave them to eat and to drink, and anointed them, and carried all the feeble of them upon asses, and brought them to Jericho, 'the city of palm trees, to their brethren: then they

returned to Samaria.

16 At that time did king Ahaz send unto the kings of Assyria to help him.

17 For again the Edomites had come and smitten Judah, and carried away captives.

18 The Philistines also had invaded the cities of the low country, and of the south of Judah, and had taken Beth-shemesh, and Ajalon, and Gederoth, and Shocho with the villages thereof, and Timnah with the villages thereof, Gimzo also and the villages thereof: and they dwelt there.

19 For the LORD brought Judah low because of Ahaz king of Israel; for he made Judah naked, and transgressed sore against the LORD.

20 And Tilgath-pilneser king of Assyria came unto him, and distressed him, but strengthened him not.

21 For Ahaz took away a portion out of the house of the LORD, and out of the house of the king, and of the princes, and gave it unto the king of Assyria: but he helped him not.

22 ¶ And in the time of his distress did he trespass yet more against the LORD: this is that king Ahaz.

23 For he sacrificed unto the gods of 'Damascus, which smote him and he said, Because the gods of the kings of Syria help them, therefore will I sacrifice to them, that they may help me. But they were the ruin of him, and of all Israel.

24 And Ahaz gathered together the vessels of the house of God, and cut in pieces the vessels of the house of God, and shut up the doors of the house of the LORD, and he made him altars in every corner of Jerusalem.

25 And in every several city of Judah he made high places to burn incense unto other gods, and provoked to anger the LORD God

of his fathers.

26 Now the rest of his acts and of all his ways, first and last, behold, they are written in the book of the kings of Judah and Israel.

27 And Ahaz slept with his fathers, and they buried him in the city, even in Jerusalem : but they brought him not into the sepulchres of the kings of Israel and Hezekiah his son reigned in his stead.

Verse 13. Ye shall not bring in the captives hither.'The king, on his arrival at Samaria with the captives of Judah, was, as we see, met by the prophet Oded, and by some of the chiefs of Ephraim. The former awakened the king's apprehensions for the consequences of the Divine anger on account of the evil already committed

against the house of Judah, and exhorted him not to add to this evil and to their danger by reducing the women and children of that kindred state to bondage. The prophet was vigorously seconded by the chiefs, who positively declared to the troops, 'Ye shall not bring in the captives hither: for whereas we have offended against the LORD already, ye in

From these and other instances, we conclude that there were places in various situations, consecrated to religious worship and generally to altar service; and that this appropriation was marked by such altars and monuments of stone as still remain in various quarters.

The Israelites were commanded to destroy the high places which had been consecrated to idols, as abominable things; while the principle of but one place of altar-service precluded the use of high places in the service of Jehovah. It appears, however, that this preclusion of high places in the service of God was not rigidly enforced until after the building of the temple: and although, after that, the offering of sacrifices and oblations at high places is noticed with reprehension, it is not clear that they were not even then allowed as places of resort for public worship and instruction-bearing the same relation to the temple as did the synagogues of after times, in which there were no offerings or sacrifices, nor any ritual service. The sentiment of the Jews in this matter is, that even sacrifice at the high places, when the intention was above suspicion, was lawful prior to the temple: and, certainly, before then such acts were performed by men whose intentions were unquestionably right, and the high places

themselves are described rather with approbation than reproach (1 Sam. ix. 12, 19, 25; x. 5:1 Kings iii. 4, &c.). This practice was so rooted that even the best kings found it difficult to interfere with it after a stricter rule had been established on the erection of the temple. It is often mentioned with blame that the people, in the best times, continued to offer sacrifice and to burn incense at the high places, to which (as we understand) they lawfully resorted, in their several districts, on the Sabbaths and other occasions for worship. That there should be such places of resort at which services might be rendered similar to those which afterwards distinguished the synagogues, is not only probable, and almost necessary in itself, but appears to be indicated in some passages (Psalm xxvii. 6; lxviii. 26; Isa. viii. 19): and it would not be easy to shew what these were but the high places, at which it was so difficult to wean the people from rendering those further and higher services of sacrifice and oblation, which should have been peculiar to the temple and the altar there. It is quite unlikely that they had other places of religious resort than those at which they were so much disposed to render higher services than the law allowed.

CHAPTER XXIX.

1 Hezekiah's good reign. 3 He restoreth religion. 5 He exhorteth the Levites. 12 They sanctify themselves, and cleanse the house of God. 20 Hezekiah offereth solemn sacrifices, wherein the Levites were more forward than the priests.

HEZEKIAH 'began to reign when he was five and twenty years old, and he reigned nine and twenty years in Jerusalem. And his mother's name was Abijah, the daughter of Zechariah.

2 And he did that which was right in the sight of the LORD, according to all that David his father had done.

3 ¶ He in the first year of his reign, in the first month, opened the doors of the house of the LORD, and repaired them.

4 And he brought in the priests and the Levites, and gathered them together into the east street,

5 And said unto them, Hear me, ye Levites, sanctify now yourselves, and sanctify the house of the LORD God of your fathers, and carry forth the filthiness out of the holy place.

6 For our fathers have trespassed, and done that which was evil in the eyes of the LORD our God, and have forsaken him, and have turned away their faces from the habitation of the LORD, and "turned their backs.

7 Also they have shut up the doors of the porch, and put out the lamps, and have not burned incense nor offered burnt offerings in the holy place unto the God of Israel.

8 Wherefore the wrath of the LORD was upon Judah and Jerusalem, and he hath deli

vered them to trouble, to astonishment, and to hissing, as ye see with your eyes.

9 For, lo, our fathers have fallen by the sword, and our sons and our daughters and our wives are in captivity for this.

10 Now it is in mine heart to make a covenant with the LORD God of Israel, that his fierce wrath may turn away from us.

11 My sons, 'be not now negligent: for the LORD hath chosen you to stand before him, to serve him, and that ye should minister unto him, and burn incense.

12 Then the Levites arose, Mahath the son of Amasai, and Joel the son of Azariah, of the sons of the Kohathites: and of the sons of Merari, Kish the son of Abdi, and Azariah the son of Jehalelel: and of the Gershonites; Joah the son of Zimmah, and Eden the son of Joah:

13 And of the sons of Elizaphan; Shimri, and Jeiel and of the sons of Asaph; Zechariah, and Mattaniah :

:

14 And of the sons of Heman; Jehiel, and Shimei and of the sons of Jeduthun; Shemaiah, and Uzziel.

15 And they gathered their brethren, and sanctified themselves, and came, according to the commandment of the king, by the words of the LORD, to cleanse the house of the LORD.

16 And the priests went into the inner part of the house of the LORD, to cleanse it, and brought out all the uncleanness that they found in the temple of the LORD into the court of the house of the LORD. And the 5 Num. 8. 14; and 18. 2, G.

4 Or, be not now deceived. 7 Or, in the business of the LORD.