BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. $ 28. Passions both groups. great number of terms for different modes or shades of courageous and cowardly characters and qualities, as compared with those for the emotions on which they are founded, namely, hope and fear only; a cir- belonging to cumstance which is the same in our days as it was in Aristotle's; we have for instance a long list of words for different kinds of courage, boldness, bravery, manliness, rashness, audacity, confidence, daring, impetuosity, fearlessness; and perhaps others might be given. Our task however is to analyse the emotions; qualities, habits, and characters, must be reduced to the emotions and passions, acts of redintegration, which are their sources; and every such act must have its inseparable framework or object, by which we may define and describe it. Now there is no single class of objects or frameworks appropriated to the acts, emotions or passions, which are denoted by the term courage or spirit. Those objects are of the most various kinds, and the feelings of the courageous man, constituting his acts courageous acts, may be analysed into a high degree of activity or energy, together with a high degree of hope, or with the absence of fear. Courage or high spirit therefore is not an ultimate emotion or group of emotions, but a composite quality distinguishing a class of men; it is a distinction between characters, not between ultimate modes of emotion. To come nearer to particulars, we may perhaps distinguish three kinds of courage; there is 1st, the cool imperturbable man who despises danger; 2nd, the sanguine man who does not see danger; 3rd, the adventurous man who courts danger. In all three alike there is the same groundwork, energy and love of action, to which is added in the first case some object of great interest which BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. $ 28. Passions belonging to both groups. fills the mind and eclipses all other considerations; in the second case, a vivid sense of hope and a disposition to see the bright side of things; in the third case, an inaccessibility to fear which leaves the adventurous spirit uncontrolled. 6. Now if we were to assume that the mind was composed of, or could be analysed into, faculties, such as are the cognitive, the conative, and the faculty of feeling, then, assuming the conative faculty to be one of these, courage might, perhaps rightly, be considered as a sub-faculty or mode of the faculty of conation. But it has been shown already that such a view is untenable, since activity is never found pure, but is always coloured by some feeling or by some object, by which alone it can be defined. The distinction of faculties therefore being abandoned, no ground remains for considering the term courage as making a separate group of emotions, passions, or actions, irreducible into others more elementary. The phenomena to which the name is given must be distributed under the heads of other emotions, acts, or objects. And following the distinctions already made, the phenomena of courage may be properly divided into such as are directed against physical dangers or difficulties, forces of nature, and impersonal circumstances, and those directed against persons and the opposition which they may offer. It is courage against persons which we have to do with here, the other kind of courage finding its place under the direct emotions of hope and fear; and the antipathetic emotions are those of which the acts and feelings of against persons are modifications, and they form the transitions; for in we resist the will of another pe BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. § 28. Passions both groups. selves against him, some degree of hostility or illwill, though it may be very small, and even though we may struggle against it, is invariably included. Add energy to illwill, or infuse energy into resisting the belonging to will of another person, and the effect is the same, namely, a certain increase in antipathetic emotion. Suppose this energy of self-assertion greatly increased, and the illwill becomes a passion, anger is intensified into rage. At the same time the object of this emotion has assumed a different appearance; he has increased in the intensity of his represented hatefulness, and in the number of hateful traits imagined or represented to belong to him. $ 29. Emotions comparison. § 29. 1. It is next in order to examine a group of emotions which depend upon a more complete di- arising from vision and more complex relations between the mind of the Subject and other minds, and upon the consequent comparison of the two by the Subject. These may be called emotions of comparison, to distinguish them from the simply sympathetic and antipathetic. They include and suppose a representation of the feelings of the other mind in view of the comparison which is drawn between the two, and which is known by both, or is an image common to both. These emotions fall into two great classes, according as the comparison is drawn between the possessions and external advantages of the two minds, or between their natural qualities and powers. The first kind of comparison may be called the comparison of Having, the second that of Being; and they give rise to quite distinct sets of emotions. The first mentioned kind seems to arise first in historical order. When we compare our own possessions, clothing, attendants, dignities, titles, and the respect paid to us by VOL. I. Р Book I. PART IV. § 29. Emotions comparison. others, with those of another person, and find ourselves come short in contrast with him, and also figure to ourselves that he is also aware of the same arising from contrast, favourable to him but unfavourable to us, the emotions which we feel may be described under the general name of ashamedness towards ourselves and of admiration of externals towards him; when the contrast is equally great but the advantage is on our side, we feel some mode of vanity towards ourselves and some kind of contempt towards him. There are no appropriate single names for the two emotions first mentioned, probably because, being painful, they do not become passions, and thus are not so much noticed. Vanity however and contempt, which arise from the favourable comparison and are therefore pleasant, are indulged and thus become passions, for which reason they are most prominent and their names current. Yet passion and emotion always go hand in hand, and there is no passion which is not founded in some emotion, nor any emotion which does not give rise to some passion, though if the emotion is painful the passion will not be the simple completion of the emotion; in this case the passion is the irritable desire not to increase but to lessen or escape from the emotion in which it arises; and in the case of the two emotions first mentioned, ashamedness and admiration of externals, it will assume some form of antipathetic emotion, illwill, or hate, towards the person in contrast with ourselves. Vanity has been defined as the desire of pleasing; it is rather the desire of exciting the emotion of comparison favourable to ourselves in matters of external show and advantage; the desire of pleasing is an euphemism; there is no goodwill in vanity except BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. § 29. Emotions comparison. incidentally, from being pleased with oneself; the pleasure of others is never its purpose. It is true that vanity is a social quality, since it depends upon the verdict of others as much as upon one's own, arising from and indeed arises only in the representation of what others will think of the comparison which both alike must draw. It thus becomes a motive of endeavours to excel, and is indirectly beneficial to society; just in the same way as discontent is a benefit, both to oneself and others, in its effects, though uneasy and painful by itself. 2. Vanity and contempt, then, are names for these emotions of comparison in their character of passions; or rather the same names serve for them in both characters. Their opposites, ashamedness and admiration of externals, have no single current names as emotions, for being painful they have no passions in indulgence, and as passions have escaped notice altogether. But the passions which arise from them are envy and jealousy, forms of illwill or hate, as already remarked. Of these, envy refers to the past and present, being without fear of future encroachments; jealousy includes fear of such encroachments of the powers or possessions of others, and refers rather to the future; it is a guarding, watchful, passion, while envy is a brooding one. 3. The emotions of the second kind of comparison, that of Being, are also four in number, but arise in comparison of the nature and natural qualities rather than of possessions and dignities; which latter however may always be regarded as results of the former, and cannot always be separated from them; for instance, a man may possess the knowledge of many languages, and eo ipso he is a linguist; but in such |