or classed, but remained undistinguishably involved in the personality; or, in other words, were and constituted the man himself as distinct from the faculties which he possessed. To cleave to the Person was therefore to cleave to the emotions which characterised that person; the personality and the emotion were for the early Christian writers the same thing, and opposed to the intellectual abstractions of philosophy, τὸ ὂν, τὸ ἓν, τἀγαθὸν, and so on. When they opposed a person, the Person of Christ, to these abstractions, the Christian writers were really opposing an emotion, the emotion of love, to them.

6. This contrast between the two ways of conceiving the rλos is very plain when we compare the writings of the New Testament with Greek philosophy, as in Plato or Plotinus. But it would be interesting to observe, if possible, the conflict between the two views actually in process; which might be done if we could find any writer propounding a theory in which he attempts to reconcile them. The conflict can plainly leave no trace of itself (for it was never conceived or criticised by the actors in it, or stated in such terms of second intention as we can now conceive and state it in) except in this way, namely, in a theory endeavouring to reconcile the two views; for a man would not write except he thought he could reconcile; either he must reconcile or be a disciple of one side only. Such a passage I think may be found in the Pomander of Hermes, i. 19. x... ed. Parthey. Καὶ ὁ ἀναγνωρίσας ἑαυτὸν ἐλήλυθεν εἰς τὸ περιούσιον ἀγαθόν, ὁ δὲ ἀγαπήσας τὸ ἐκ πλάνης ἔρωτος σῶμα, οὗτος μένει ἐν τῷ σκότει πλανώμενος, αἰσθητῶς πάσχων τὰ τοῦ θανάτου. Here is the opposition between intellectual insight and the lower zálŋ.

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But now come the questions, How does ignorance condemn, and How does knowledge save? Ignorance condemns because the body and its zάon have uncontrolled sway. Knowledge saves by showing man his true nature. So far all is pure Greek philosophy. But now come the further questions, Have not all men alike the same source of knowledge, vous, and What determines one man and not another to attain this knowledge? Here come in the emotional requisites, i. 22, παραγίνομαι αὐτὸς ἐγὼ ὁ νοῦς τοῖς ὁσίοις καὶ ἀγαθοῖς καὶ καθαροῖς καὶ ἐλεήμοσι, τοῖς εὐσεβῶς βιοῦσι. 5ο that, while knowledge is still retained as the essential condition of virtue and happiness, the condition of acquiring this knowledge is placed in the previous acquisition of moral and emotional virtues; a view which apparently involves an alternation between the two principles, of knowledge and emotion, in infinite regress. Such an incomplete reconciliation however could manifestly serve only as a transition to the speedy victory of the view which placed the essential condition, at once and once for all, in the emotional and not in the cognitive element. And this accordingly is the view which mankind has since that time been engaged in working out, and with which it is even yet occupied.

§ 60. 1. Let us consider in the next place what classes of circumstances are to be distinguished from the character itself, and regarded as influences operating upon it. We shall thus circumscribe our immediate object, the character, more closely; for our purpose is to examine its usually chosen representations, and its favourite modes of redintegrating them; that is, its modes of reaction upon such external influences, its selections from among them, and its

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modes of dealing with them. We want to distinguish between the Man himself and the influences moulding him, and in the man himself to discover the various tendencies which determine his reaction upon the character. the conditions to which he is exposed. It cannot be assumed that he is a tabula rasa, entirely moulded by or inscribed with characters from without; for all our enquiries hitherto have led us to the conclusion that the emotions arise first in representation, and depend upon the cerebral movements which support redintegration, that is, are natural to, or contributed by, the structure and movements of the cerebral organ, not derived by modification from the material element of the representations themselves conveyed to that organ by the nerves of sense. And this will hold good at whatever stage of historical development we consider mankind, even at the very earliest, since we must always assume some functions or other to be natural to the cerebral hemispheres. Still our present object is man as he exists at present; and therefore the different general modes of cerebral reaction, in selection and redintegration of representations, which are natural to man as we see him now, in a state of civilisation, are the immediate objects of our investigation. From these must be separated, 1st, the external causes imposing or enforcing different representations at different times, and 2nd, the causes which at remoter times may have contributed to make the general modes of cerebral reaction, as we see them at present, natural to him. To proceed otherwise than by drawing this distinction would be to launch into a psychological or historical enquiry, instead of a metaphysical one, into Anthropology instead of Ethic.

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2. The first class of influences upon character to be distinguished from the character itself consists itself of representations. They are those which bethe character. long to what may be called education, and which are exerted either by doctrines or precepts or expressions of praise and blame from those around us, more especially in childhood and youth, or by institutions of civil, domestic, and political life; two classes of influences upon the mind and character from which no one can escape, but upon which every one may react with various degrees of energy, and in various modes of redintegration. Together with the representations which belong to this education must of course be included the presentations of the objects which are the means of conveying and enforcing them, such as pictures, letters, punishments, occurrences in daily life, actions and words of companions, friends, and enemies, buildings, natural objects and their effects;-everything in short which being presented to the senses arouses or is connected with representations, which are thereby imposed upon the mind whether it will or no. These objects taken separately from their representations may be included under another head also; but it is no harm to enumerate them in two connections. This is an education which continues to operate during the whole life, its influence is unceasing; but by the period of middle life the character has usually taken so definite and hardened a mould, that we are tempted to distinguish it only by these two empirical periods, of character forming and character formed, and to put this empirical distinction in the place of the more philosophical one of natural tendencies and external influences. The empirical division into periods also

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harmonises well with the other unphilosophical assumption of a tabula rasa, since the formed character of the second period appears to be the mere result of the external influences forming the character in the character. the first period. But the untenability of this view is shown, I think, by the wide differences constantly met with between characters which have been subjected to very similar influences of educational circumstances, even when the physical organisation of the body is similar also. Yet we must remember that the analysis of character, in respect of the different effects produced in it by different external influences, is the most intricate of questions, and the necessary inductions very far from complete; indeed there has hitherto been no preliminary logic of the subject at hand, no scientific hypothetical framework, to serve as a guide in instituting such inductions.

3. The remaining classes of influences upon the character, which nevertheless cannot be all of them sharply distinguished from those now classed as educational, may be grouped under two heads, according as they include or do not include a redintegrating combination of sensations, as in perception of remote objects for instance. To the head of those which do not include redintegration belong:

1st, All modification of the nervous organism influencing the cerebral functions by means of the bodily organisation, or external circumstances acting upon and through it, but without itself immediately producing sensation. This includes the influences of the different temperaments, of climate, diet, regimen, difference of age, and difference of sex, except so far as will afterwards appear in § 74; all in short that is included in the "influence of the body on the mind;"