there is pain of sensation, there is also effort, named afterwards an effort to decrease the pain; and whenever there is pleasure, there may be in addition an effort, named afterwards an effort to increase the pleasure; that is, named by what it has been perceived to tend towards. For instance, in hunger there is pain and a craving for it to be diminished; this stimulates to reckless action, when it is intense, because it fills all the consciousness and prevents other feelings from influencing us; hence the motive power of hunger, and the ferocity which attends it in its extremes. When food is given and begun to be tasted, the pleasure excites craving for it to be increased; there is then a double motive force at work, the craving to escape the pain, and the craving to increase the pleasure. This explains the increase of ravenous ferocity of hungry animals at the moment when food has just been smelt or tasted by them. In the appetite for sleep again it is the same, the craving for the increase of the pleasure of indulging drowsiness is combined with the craving for diminishing the pain of weariness. Pleasure, pain, and effort, then, are common or general states of feeling superinduced upon or arising in each of these sensations. 4. It has been hitherto supposed that these sensations are sensations alone; they have been regarded (except in the two foregoing illustrations) as not combined with the knowledge either of the organs in which they arise, or of the objects which are their appropriate stimulus, adapted to arouse or to satisfy them. But now suppose that the person feeling these sensations combines with them such a knowledge; which he does when he sees or represents to himself the body or special parts or organs of the body to which they belong, and when he sees or represents to himself the objects appropriate to satisfy the sense of effort arising in them. In the case of the intermittent groups of sensations, in those, for instance, of the digestive system, he represents to himself the object food as such a stimulus; the definiteness of the represented object, an object represented as desirable, makes what was before mere effort become volition; he has the desire of food. Food is represented as pleasant; hence all volition is emotional in its nature, as depending on representation. Mere effort is sensational only, but effort for a purpose is emotional; though there may also be emotional effort which is not volition, or effort for a purpose. The volition to satisfy any systemic sensation is properly called appetite, although the term appetite is commonly restricted to the sensations of the digestive and reproductive systems. And it will be seen afterwards that what appetite is to these sensations, where these are its substratum or framework, passion is to emotions, having emotions for its framework; appetite is the desire of sensation, passion the desire of emotion. Desire, which is a common feature or element in sensations, is also in another shape, as passion, a common feature or element in emotions. It is common to both the great groups of feeling, and makes a link between them. 5. This common feature, however, does not transform the one into the other; sensation with its desire still remains sensation, and emotion with its desire still remains emotion. Nevertheless sensation is taken up and included in emotion, and in this way: the sensations with their organs, and with the objects which VOL. I. F Book I. CH. IL PART 1. $9. The systemic sensations. satisfy them, are represented as images, are thought of as satisfied, or capable of satisfaction, together with the means and modes of their satisfaction; and in these representations there arise feelings which are not sensations but emotions. Whenever this takes place, the representation of sensation does not become emotion of all kinds indifferently, but there are only four kinds of emotion which it can become, namely, grief, joy, aversion, fondness; grief and joy when the sensation is represented as arising in the body itself without respect of the object causing it, aversion and fondness when the sensation is referred to such an external object, when we are said to feel aversion or fondness for that object. The sensations, on receiving citizenship among the emotions, are drafted into four tribes only, grief, joy, aversion, fondness; becoming there, as representations, the groundwork or framework in which emotional elements of feeling, called by these names, arise, each coloured by the particular kind of sensation which is included in its representational framework. 6. It is by no means easy to distinguish what is the feeling which is due to the bodily organ of sense and properly to be called sensation, and what is the feeling due to the representation or redintegration and properly to be called emotion, even when the objects are distinctly represented. But the task becomes harder still, when the sensations are not distinctly represented as visible objects and so included in emotion, but combine with the otherwise emotional train of thought, as sensations or presentations. dimly felt. For instance, healthy or agreeable states of sensation combine with the otherwise emotional train of thought and feeling, and render it cheerful; morbid or disagreeable states of sensation render it gloomy. How much of this gloom or cheerfulness is to be attributed in each case to the sensation, how much to the train of thought and feeling? Each factor moreover stands in the relation of cause or of effect to the other, and tends to produce the other even when it did not previously exist. This is the phenomenon familiarly known by the name of the influence of the mind on the body and of the body on the mind. I should be inclined to appropriate the terms energy and tædium vitæ to the healthy and morbid states of sensation, vivacity and ennui to the corresponding states of the emotional train of thought. The remarks here made on the carrying up of the systemic sensations into emotion apply also, in the main, to the other sensations now about to be examined. § 10. 1. The remaining sensations form one great group, as the systemic sensations did, the sensations of the special senses. There are five sub-groups, the special senses, smell, taste, touch, hearing, sight. The rank of each as a special sense, in contradistinction to a group of sensations, is given by its containing sensations different in matter or specific kind of feeling from each other, the different odours, the different tastes, for instance, yet all belonging to the same general kind; whereas this common generic bond was absent in the several groups of systemic sensation. 2. But the two lowest of the special senses, smell and taste, agree with the groups of systemic sensations and differ from touch and sight in containing only the formal element of time, and differ from hearing in containing time only in its simplest mode of duration. The discrimination which is possible between their specifically different sensations, the BOOK I. § 9. The systemic sensations. $10. The special senses. Taste and smell. BOOK I. $10. The special senses. different odours and tastes, is due to the matter and not to the form of the sensations. The different qualities of these sensations can be compared and contrasted with each other, even though they do not involve any difference in their formal element. This applies also to the systemic sensations, but the systemic sensations of each group, when compared with each other, do not belong to one genus as those of smell and taste do, the different odours and sapours. The pain involved in these two senses is less than in the systemic groups, and the objects which produce odours and tastes are very much in our power, to apply or not to apply as we like. Hence these senses are very educable, and their sensations are arranged in a sort of scale of degree and kind of pleasure, as refined or unrefined, subtil or coarse; and a very acute power of discrimination between them can be attained. But the different tastes and odours are not opposite or contrary to each other, only different; they are opposite or contrary only by a figure of speech, since there is no difference in the formal element; nor do they even apparently run in pairs; for instance, sweetness is opposed sometimes to sourness, sometimes to bitterness. The common genus to which they belong does not stand between them, so as to make a common point of reference to which they are differently related. Except in the characteristics of belonging to one distinct genus, and of educability, the sensations of these two special senses, taste and smell, differ in nothing from the systemic sensations. In all alike there can be distinguished only these modes of sensation, quality, intensity, pleasure and pain. The difference between them lies in the greater discriminateness and organisation in |