Leibnitz in making an account of the spiritual life of man, in inventorying the principles of his civilization and making clear and consistent his views of the world.—To live is one thing, but to give a rational and consistent account of one's life is a different and difficult matter. The old psychology succeeded in doing this by these fundamental distinctions, and all new attempts at psychology either prove abortive, or else soon fall into line with the old psychology, so far as these essentials are concernedthey end in affirming self-activity as more substantial than material things, and in the admission of various grades of realization of this self-activity, or soul.

$90. Another very important step in this investigation of the contents of self-consciousness, which the German thinkers have added to the old psychology, is the recognition of the characteristic of universality and necessity as the criterion of what is in the constitution of mind itself as contradistinguished from experience or empirical content. Time and space, the categories of quality and quantity, the laws of causality, identity, and contradiction, the ideas of self-activity, moral responsibility, and religion, all transcend experience, and are found by introspection. It is their application which constitutes experience, and experience would be impossible unless the mind had in itself these powers a priori, for these powers make experience possible. If we could not furnish the intuitions of infinite space and time, we could not perceive objects of experience; nor un

less we could furnish the category of causality could we refer our sensations to objects as causes.

Universal and necessary ideas are furnished by the mind itself, and not derived from experience, although our consciousness of them may date from our application of them to the content of experience. Formal logic, with its judgments and syllogisms, its figures and modes, should be regarded also as a part of rational psychology in so far as it reveals to us the forms of action of thinking reason. All these contributions of the old psychology are of priceless value, as giving us the means to understand the place we occupy in the universe with our ideals of civilization. They furnish us directive power, they give us the regulative ideals of education, religion, jurisprudence, politics, and the general conduct of life.

§ 91. Although the old psychology has furnished these substantial things, it has not furnished all that is desirable. There is a realm of conditions which must be understood before man can be made to realize his ideals. The product of Nature is an animal, and not a civilized man. How can man react upon Nature; how can he ascend out of his own natural conditions; how can he rise from the stage of sense-perception to that of reflection; how from mere reflection to mere thought; how can he put off his state of slavery to the category of thing and environment, and rise to the category of self-activity? This is to ask how we can ascend from a mechanical view of the world to an ethical view of it. Certainly we must

know the bodily conditions that limit or enthrall the soul. We must be able to recognise what activity tends to fix the soul in a lower order of thought and action, and what exercise will tend to lift it to a higher order.

To enumerate some of these enthralling conditions through which the soul passes necessarily, if it ever comes to the highest, we must name the influences and attractions of one's habitat, its climate and soil, its outlook, its means of connection with the rest of the world. Then next there is the race and stock of which one comes, black, red, yellow, or white-northern or southern European-inheriting all the evil tendencies and all the good aspirations. Then the temperament and idiosyncrasy of the individual, as his natural talents or his genius-these all lie deep as predetermining causes in his career.—Then come other natural elements to be regarded-those of sex -the seven ages from infancy to senility-the physical conditions that belong to sleep and dreams and the waking state, the health and disease of the body, the insane tendencies, the results of habits in hardening and fixing the life of the individual in some lower round of activity. If he is alone the efficient cause or the free will, at least these conditions of habitat, race, and stock furnish the material that he is to quarry and build into the temple of his life-a Parthenon, a Pantheon, or only a mud hut or a snow house.

§ 92. Of all these, the laws of growth from infancy to mature age especially concern the educator. There is for man, as contrasted with lower animals, a long period of helpless infancy. Prof. John Fiske has shown the importance of this fact to the theory,

of evolution as applied to man.* Basing his theory on some hints of Wallace and Spencer, he has explained how the differentiation of the primitive savage man from the animal groups must have been acomplished. Where psychical life is complex there is not time for all capacities to become organized before birth. The prolongation of helpless infancy is required for the development of man's adaptations to the spiritual environment implied in the habits and arts and modes of behaviour of the social community into which man is born. He is born first as an infant body, he must be born second as an ethical soul, or else he can not become human. The conditions are of extreme complexity. This is the most important contribution of the doctrine of evolution to education.

§ 93. In the light of this discovery we may see what an important bearing the results of child study and physiological psychology will have on education.

* Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler has pointed out that the Greek philosopher Anaximander, more than two thousand years ago, spoke of the prolonged period of infancy as a reason for believing that in the beginning man had an origin from animals of a different species from himself. The Greek did not perceive the relation of this prolonged infancy to the adjustment of the complex physical and spiritual activities of the child to his environment.

For it is evident that if the child is at any epoch of his long period of helplessness inured into any habit or fixed form of activity belonging to a lower stage of development that the tendency will be to arrest growth at that standpoint and make it difficult or next to impossible to continue the growth of the child into higher and more civilized forms of soul activity.

A severe drill in mechanical habits of memorizing or calculating, any overcultivation of sense-perception in tender years, may so arrest the development of the soul in a mechanical method of thinking as to prevent further growth into spiritual insight. Especially on the second plane of thought which follows that of sense-perception and the mechanical stage of thinking-namely, the stage of noticing mere relations and of classifying by mere likeness or difference, or even the search for causal relations-there is most danger of this arrested development. The absorption of the gaze upon adjustments within the machine prevents us from seeing the machine as a whole. The attention to details of colouring and drawing may prevent one from seeing the significance of the great work of art. The habit of parsing every sentence that one sees may prevent one from enjoying a sonnet of Wordsworth. Too much counting

and calculating may at a tender age set the mind in the mechanical habit of looking for mere numerical relations in whatever it sees. Certainly the young savage who is taught to see in Nature only the traces that mark the passage of a wild animal, or perhaps of a warrior foe, has stopped his growth of observation at a point not very much above that of the hound that hunts by scent.And yet all these mechanical studies are necessary at some period in the school; they can not be replaced except by others equally objectionable in the same aspect. The question is, then, where to stop and change to other