advise, used impersonally in the passive; thus, Persuadetur mihi, I am persuaded; seldom or never Ego persuadeor. We say, however, in the third person, Hoc persuadetur mihi, I am persuaded of

this.

Tibi, dat. sing. of the personal pronoun tu, thou; governed by persuade, according to Rule 33. Te accusative sing. of tu, put before esse, according to Rule 42.

Esse, present of the infinitive, from the substantive verb sum, fui, esse, to be.
Quidem, indeed, an adverb, joined with carissimum or esse.

Carissimum, accusative sing. masc. from carissimus, -a, -um, very dear, dearest, superlative degree of the adjective carus, -a, -um, dear; Comparative degree, carior, carior, carius, dearer, more dear agreeing with te or filium understood, by Rule 1. and put in the accusative by Rule 5.

Mihi, to me, dat. sing. of the substantive pronoun Ego, I; governed by carissimum, by Rule 13. Sed, but, an adversative conjunction, joining esse and fore.

Fore, the same with esse futurum, to be, or to be about to be, infinitive of the defective verb fòrem, -res, -ret, &c. governed in the same manner with the foregoing esse, thus, le fore, Rule 42. or thus, esse sed fore. See Rule 28.

Multo, scil. negotio, ablat. sing. neut. of the adjective multus, -a, -um, much, put in the ablative, according to observation 5. Rule 20. But multo here may be taken adverbially in the same manner with much in English.

Cariorem, accus. sing. masc. from carior, -or, -us, the comparative of carus, as before, agreeing with te or filium understood. Rule 1. or Rule 5.

Si, if, a conditional conjunction, joined either with the indicative mode, or with the subjunctive, according to the sense, but oftener with the latter. See Rule 60.

Lætabere, Thou shalt rejoice, second person singular of the future of the indicative, from the deponent verb lætor, lætatus, lætāri, to rejoice: Future, læt-abor, abĕris or ābĕre, ābitur, &c.

Talibus, ablat. plur, neut. of the adjective talis, talis, tali, such; agreeing with monumentis, the ablat. plur. of the substantive noun monumentum, -ti, neut. a monument or writing, of the second declension; derived from moneo, -ui, -ìtum, -ēre, to admonish; here put in the ablative, according to Rule 52. Et, a copulative conjunction, as before.

Præceptis, a substantive noun in the ablative plural, from the nominative præceptum, -ti, neut. a precept, an instruction; derived from præcipio, -cēpi, -ceptum, -cipere, to instruct, to order, compounded of the preposition præ, before, and the verb capio, cepi, captum, capère, to take. The ǎ of the simple is changed into i short; thus, præcipio, præcipis, &c.

The learner may in like manner be taught to analyze the words in English, and in doing so, to mark the different idioms of the two languages.

To this may be subjoined a Praxis, or Exercise on all the different parts of grammar, particularly with regard to the inflection of nouns and verbs in the form of questions, such as these, of Cicero ? Ciceronis. With Cicero? Cicerone. A dear son? Carus filius. Of a dear son? Cari filii. O my dear son? Mi or meus care fili. Of dearer sons? Cariorum filiorum, &c.

Of thee? or of you? Tui. With thee or you? te: Of you? Vestrûm or vestri. With you? Vobis They shall persuade? Persuadebunt. I can persuade? Persuadeam, or much more frequently possum persuadere. They are persuaded? Persuadetur, or persuasum est illis, according to the time expressed. He is to persuade? Est persuasurus. He will be persuaded? Persuadebitur, or persuasum erit illi. He cannot be persuaded? Non potest persuaderi illi. I know that he cannot be persuaded? Scio non posse persuaderi illi. That he will be persuaded? Ei persuasum iri, &c.

When a learner first begins to translate from the Latin, he should keep as strictly to the literal meaning of the words as the different idioms of the two languages will permit. But after he has made further progress, something more will be requisite. He should then be accustomed, as much as possible, to transfuse the beauties of an author from the one language into the other. For this purpose it will be necessary that he be acquainted, not only with the idioms of the two languages, but also with the different kinds of style adapted to different sorts of composition, and to different subjects; together with the various turns of thought and expression which writers employ, or what are called the figures of words and of thought; or the Figures of Rhetoric.

IV. DIFFERENT KINDS OF STYLE.

The kinds of Style (generæ dicendi) are commonly reckoned three; the low, (humile, submissum, tenue ;) the middle, (medium, temperatum, ornatum, floridum ;) and the sublime, (sublime, grande.)

But besides these, there are various other characters of style; as, the diffuse and concise; the feeble and nervous; the simple and affected, &c.

There are different kinds of style adapted to different subjects and to different kinds of composition; the style of the Pulpit, of the Bar, and of Popular Assemblies; the style of History, and of its various branches, Annals, Memoirs or Commentaries, and Lives; the style of Philosophy, of Dialogue or Colloquial discourse, of Epistles, and Romance, &c.

There is also a style peculiar to certain writers, called their Manner; as the style of Cicero, of Livy, of Sallust, &c.

But what deserves particular attention is, the difference between the style of poetry and of prose. As the poets in a manner paint what they describe, they employ various epithets, repetitions, and turns of expression, which are not admitted in prose.

The first virtue of style (virtus orationis) is perspicuity, or that it be easily understood. This requires, in the choice of the words, 1. Purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words, and to errors in Syntax: 2. Propriety, or the selection of the best expressions, in opposition to vulgarisms or low expressions: 3. Precision, in opposition to superfluity of words, or a loose style.

The things chiefly to be attended to in the structure of a sentence, or in the disposition of its parts, are, 1. Clearness, in opposition to ambiguity and obscurity: 2. Unity and Strength, in opposition to an unconnected, intricate, and feeble sentence: 3. Harmony, or musical arrangement, in opposition to harshness of sound.

The most common defects of style (vitia orationis) are distinguished by various

names:

1. A BARBARISM is when a foreign or strange word is made use of; as, croftus, for agellus; rigorosus, for rigidus or severus; alterare, for mutare, &c. Or when the rules of Orthography, Etymology, or Prosody are transgressed; as, charus, for carus; stavi, for steti; tibicen, for tibicen.

2. Á SOLECISM is when the rules of Syntax are transgressed; as, Dicit libros lectos iri, for lectum iri. A barbarism may consist in one word, but a solecism requires several words.

3. An IDIOTISM is when the manner of expression peculiar to one language is used in another; as an Anglicism in Latin, thus, I am to write, Ego sum scribĕre, for ego sum scripturus; It is I, Est ego, for Ego sum: Or a Latinism in English, thus, Est sapientior me, He is wiser than me, for than I; Quem dicunt me esse? Whom do they say that I am? for who, &c.

4. TAUTOLOGY is when we either uselessly repeat the same words, or repeat the same sense in different words.

5. BOMBAST is when high sounding words are used without meaning, or upon a trifling occasion.

6. AMPHIBOLOGY is when, by the ambiguity of the construction, the meaning may be taken in two different senses as in the answer of the oracle to Pyrrhus, Aio te, Eacide, Romanos vincere posse. But the English is not so liable to this as the

Latin.

V. FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

Certain modes of speech are termed Figurative, because they convey our meaning under a borrowed form, or in a particular dress.

Figures (figura or schemăta) are of two kinds; figures of words, (figuræ verborum,) and figures of thought, (figuræ sententiarum.) The former are properly called Tropes; and if the word be changed, the figure is lost.

1. TROPES, OR FIGURES OF Words.

A Trope (conversio) is an elegant turning of a word from its proper signification. Tropes take their rise partly from the barrenness of language, but more from the influence of the imagination and passions. They are founded on the relation which one object bears to another, chiefly that of resemblance or similitude.

The principal tropes are the Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony.

1. METAPHOR (translatio) is when a word is transferred from that to which it properly belongs, to express something to which it is only applied from similitude or resemblance; as, a hard heart; a soft temper; he bridles his anger; a joyful crop ; ridet ager, the field smiles, &c. A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison. We likewise call that a metaphor, when we substitute one object in the place of another, on account of the close resemblance between them; as when, instead of youth, we say, the morning or spring time of life; or when, in speaking of a family connected with a common parent, we use the expressions which properly belong to a tree, whose trunk and branches are connected with a common root., When this allusion is carried on through several sentences, or through a whole discourse, and the principal subject kept out of view, so that it can only be discovered by its resem

blance to the subject described, it is called an ALLEGORY. An example of this we have in Horace, book 1. ode 14. where the republic is described under the allusion of a ship.

AN ALLEGORY is only a continued metaphor. This figure is much the same with the Parable, which so often occurs in the sacred scriptures; and with the Fable, such as those of Æsop. The Enigma or Riddle is also considered as a species of the Allegory; as likewise are many Proverbs, Proverbia vel Adagia; thus, In sylvam ligna ferre, Horat.

Metaphors are improper when they are taken from low objects; when they are forced or far-fetched; when they are mixed or too far pursued; and when they have not a natural and sensible resemblance; or are not adapted to the subject of discourse, or to the kind of composition, whether poetry or prose.

When a word is very much turned from its proper signification, it is called Catachrēsis, (abusio;) as, a leaf of paper, of gold, &c. the empire flourished; parricida, for any murderer; Vir gregi ipse caper, Virg. Altum ædificant caput, Juv. Hunc vobis deridendum propino, for trado, Ter. Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas, Hor.

When a word is taken in two senses in the same phrase, the one proper and the other metaphorical, it is called Syllepsis, (comprehensio;) as, Galatea thymo mihi dulcior Hyblæ, Virg. Ego Sardois videar tibi amarior herbis, Id.

2. METONYMY (mutatio nominis) is the putting of one name for another. In which sense it includes all other tropes; but it is commonly restricted to the following particulars :-1. When the cause is put for the effect; or the inventor, for the thing invented; or the author for his works; as, Boum labores, for corn; Mars, for war; thus, quo marte pugnatum est, with equal advantage, Liv. Ceres, for grain, or bread; Bacchus, for wine; Venus, for love; Vulcanus, for fire; thus, Sine Cerere, et Baccho, friget Venus, Ter. Furit Vulcanus, Virg. So a general is put for his army, Cicero, Virgil, and Horace, for their works; Moses and the Prophets for their books; a beautiful Raphael, Titian, Guido, Fheni, Rembrant, Reubens, Vandyke, &c. for their pictures.-2. When the effect is put for the cause; as, Pallida mors, Pale death, because it makes pale; atra cura, &c.-3. The container for what is contained, and sometimes the contrary; as, Hausit pateram, for vinum, Virg. He loves his bottle, for drink: Secundam mensam servis dispertiit, i. e. fercula in mensa, Nep. So Roma, for Romani; Europe, for the Europeans; Heaven, for the Supreme Being; Secernit Europen ab Afro, for Africa; In arduos tollor Sabinos, for in agrum Sabinorum; Incolumi Jove, for Capitolio; Janus, for the temple of Janus, Hor. Proximus ardet Ucalegon, for domus Ucalegontis, Virg. So Sergestus, for his ship, Id. Æn. v. 272.-4. The sign for the thing signified; as, The crown, for royal authority; palma or laurus, for victory; cedant arma toga, that is, as Cicero himself explains it, bellum concedat paci. Ferri togæque consilia, consultations about war and peace, Stat. Sylv. v. 1. 82.-5. An abstract, for the concrete; as, Scelus, for scelestus, Ter. Audacia, for audax, Cic. Custodia, for custodes, Virg. Servitus, for servi; nobilitas, for nobiles; juventus, for juvenes; vicinia, for vicini; vires, for strong men, Hor. Furta, for stolen oxen, Ovid. Fast. i. 560.-6. The parts of the body, for certain passions or sentiments, which were supposed to reside in them; thus, cor, for wisdom or address; as, habet cor, vir cordatus, a man of sense, Plaut. But with us the heart is put for courage or affection, and the head for wisdom; thus, a stout heart; a warm heart; a sound head, &c. So, to have a well hung tongue, for to speak with ease, &c.

When we put what follows to express what goes before, or the contrary, it is called Metalepsis, (transmutatio;) thus, desiderari, to be desired or regretted, for to be dead, lost, or absent: So Fuimus Troes, et ingens gloria Dardani, i. e. are no more, Virg. Æn. ii. 325.

3. SYNECDOCHE (comprehensio or conceptio) is a trope by which a word is made to signify more or less than in its proper sense; as, 1. When a genus is put for a species, or a whole for a part, and the contrary; thus, Mortales, for homines; summa arbor, for summa pars arboris; priusquam pabula gustassent Troja, Xanthumque bibissent, for partem pabuli, and fluminis Xanthi, Virg. Nat uncta carina, for navis: centum puppes, a hundred sail, or a hundred ships; tectum, the roof, for the

whole house; capita or animæ, for homines; ungula, for equus or equi, Horat. Sat. i. 1. 114; the door, or even the threshold, for the house or temple, tum foribus divæ, for in templo diva, Virg. Tempe, for any beautiful vale, &c. 2. When a singular is put for a plural, and the contrary; thus, Hostis, miles, pedes, eques, for hostes, &c. millies, a thousand times, for many times. 3. When the materials are put for the things made of them; as, Æs or argentum, for money; ara, for vases of brass trumpets, arms, &c. ferrum, for a sword; taurus, for a bull's hide, Virg.

When a common name is put for a proper name, or the contrary, it is called Antonomasia, (pronominatio;) as, the Philosopher, for Aristotle; the Orator, for Demosthenes or Cicero; the Poet, for Homer or Virgil; the Wise man, for Solomon ; Astu, for Athens; Urbs, the city or town, for the capital of any country; Panus, for Hannibal; Nero, for a cruel prince; Macēnas, for a patron of learning; as, Sint Macenates, non deerunt, Flacce, Marones, i. e. sint munifici patroni, non deerunt boni poeta. Martial. viii. 56, 5.

An Antonomasia is often made by a Periphrosis; as, Pelopis parens, for Tantalus ; Anyti reus, for Socrates; Trojani belli scriptor, for Homer; Chironis Alumnus, for Achilles; Potor Rhodani, for Gallus; Juba tellus, for Mauritania, Horat. &c. or by a patronymic noun; as, Anchisiades, for Æneas; Tyndaris, -idis, for Helena, &c. or by an epithet; as, Impius reliquit, for Æneas, Virg.—sometimes with the noun added; as, Fatalis et incestus judex, famosus hospes, for Paris, Hor.

4. IRONY is when one means the contrary of what is said; as, when we say of a bad poet, he is a Virgil; or of a profligate person, Tertius a Cælo cecidit Cato.

When any thing is said by way of bitter raillery, or in an insulting manner, it is called a SARCASM; as, Satia te sanguine, Cyre, Justin. Italiam metire jacens, Virg.

When an affirmation is expressed in a negative form, it is called LITŎTES; as, He is no fool, for he is a man of sense; Non humilis mulier, for nobilis or superba ; non indecoro pulvere, for decoro, Horat. When a word has a meaning contrary to its original sense, it is called Antiphrăsis; as, auri sacra fames, for execrabilis, Virg. Pontus Euxini falso nomine dictus, i. e. hospitalis, Ovid.

When any thing sad or offensive is expressed in more gentle terms, it is called EUPHEMISMUS; as, Vita functus, for mortuus; conclamare suos, to give up for lost, Liv. Valeant, for abeant; mactare, or ferire, for occidere; Fecerunt id servi Milonis, quod suos quisque servos in tali re facere voluisset, i. e. Clodium interfecerunt, Cic. This figure is often the same with the Periphrasis.

The PERIPHRǎsis, or Circumlocution, is when several words are employed to express what might be expressed in fewer. This is done either from necessity, as in translating from one language into another; or to explain what is obscure, as in definitions; or for the sake of ornament, particularly in poetry, as in the descriptions of evening and morning, &c.

When after explaining an obscure word or sentence by a periphrasis, one enlarges on the thought of the author, it is called a Paraphrase.

When a word imitates the sound of the thing signified, it is called Onomatopoïa, (nominis fictio;) as, the whistling of winds, purling of streams, buz and hum of insects, hiss of serpents, &c. But this figure is not properly a trope.

It is sometimes difficult to ascertain to which of the above-mentioned tropes certain expressions ought to be referred. But in such cases minute exactness is needless. It is sufficient to know in general that the expression is figurative.

There are a great many tropes peculiar to every language, which cannot be literally expressed in any other. These, therefore, if possible, must be rendered by other figurative expressions equivalent; and if this cannot be done, their meaning should be conveyed in simple language; thus, Interiore notâ Falerni, with a glass of old Falernian wine: Ad umbilicum ducere, to bring to a conclusion, Horat. These, and other such figurative expressions, cannot be properly explained without understanding the particular customs to which they refer.

2. REPETITION OF WORDS.

Various repetitions of words are employed for the sake of elegance or force, and are therefore also called Figures of words. Rhetoricians have distinguished them by different names, according to the part of the sentence in which they take place.

When the same verb is repeated in the beginning of any member of a sentence, it is called ANAPHORA; as, Nihilne te nocturnum præsidium palatii, nihil urbis vigilia, &c. Cic. Te dulcis conjux, te solo in littore secum, Te veniente die, te descendente canebat, Virg.

When the repetition is made in the end of the member, it is called EPISTROPHE, or conversio ; as, Panos Populus Romanus justitiâ vicit, armis vicit, liberalitate vicit, Cic. Sometimes both the former occur in the same sentence, and then it is called SYMPLOCE, or Complexio; as, Quis legem tulit? Rullus. Quis, &c. Rullus, Cic.

When the same word is repeated in the beginning of the first clause of a sentence, and in the end of the latter, it is called EPANALEPSIS; as, Vidimus victoriam tuam præliorum exitu terminatam; gladium vaginâ vacuum in urbe non vidimus, Cic. pro Marcello.

The reverse of the former is called ANADAPLOSIS, or Reduplicatio; as, Hic tamen vivit : vivit! imò in senatum venit, Cic.

When that which is placed first in the foregoing member, is repeated last in the following, and the contrary, it is called EPANODOS, or Regressio; as, Crudelis tu quoque mater; Crudelis mater magis an puer improbus ille? Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quoque mater, Virg.

The passionate repetition of the same word in any part of a sentence, is called EPIZEUXIS; as, Excitate, excitate eum ab inferis, Cic. Fuit, fuit ista virtus, &c. Id. Me, me, adsum qui feci, in me convertite ferrum, Virg. Bella, horrida bella, Id. Ibimus, ibimus, Hor.

When we proceed from one thing to another, so as to connect by the same word the subsequent part of a sentence with the preceding, it is called CLIMAX, or Gradatio; as, Africano virtutem industria, virtus gloriam, gloria æmulos comparavit, Cic.

When the same word is repeated in various cases, moods, genders, numbers, &c. it is called POLYPTOTON; as, Pleni sunt omnes libri, plenæ sapientium voces, plena exemplorum vetustas, Cic. Littora littoribus contraria, fluctibus undas imprecor, arma armis, Virg. To this is usually referred what is called SYNONYMIA, or the using of words of the same import, to express a thing more strongly; as, Non feram, non patiar, non sinam, Cic. Promitto, recipio, spondeo, Id. And also EXPOLITIO, which repeats the same thought in different lights.

When a word is repeated the same in sound, but not in sense, it is called ANTANACLASIS; as, Amari jucundum est, si curetur ne quid insit amari, Cic. But this is reckoned a defect in style, rather than a beauty. Nearly allied to this figure is the PARONOMASIA, or Agnominatio, when the words only resemble one another in sound; as, Civem bonarum artium, bonarum partium ; Consul pravo animo et parvo; De oratore arator factus, Cic. Amantes sunt amentes, Ter. This is also called a PUN.

When two or more words are joined in any part of a sentence in the same cases or tenses, it is called HOMOIOPTOTON, i. e. similiter cadens; as, Pollet auctoritate, circumfluit opibus, abundat amicis, Cic. If the words have only a similar termination, it is called HOMOIOTELEUTON, i. e. similiter desinens; as, Non ejusdem est facere fortiter, et vivere turpiter, Cic.

3. FIGURES OF THOUGHT.

It is not easy to reduce figures of thought to distinct classes, because the same figure is employed for several different purposes. The principal are the Hyperbole, Prosopopëia, Apostrophe, Simile, Antithesis, &c.

1. HYPERBOLÉ is when a thing is magnified above the truth; as, when Virgil, speaking of Polyphemus, says, Ipse arduus, altaque pulsat sidera. So Contracta pisces æquora sentiunt, Hor. When an object is diminished below the truth, it is called Tapeinōsus. The use of extravagant Hyperboles forms what is called Bombast.

2. PROSOPOPOEIA, or Personification, is when we ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities; as, Quæ (patria) tecum, Catilina, sic agit, &c. Cic. Virtus sumit aut ponit secures, Hor. Arbore nunc aquas culpante, Id. 3. APOSTROPHE, or Address, is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to some person present or absent, living or dead, or to inanimate nature, as if endowed with sense and reason. This figure is nearly allied to the former, and therefore often joined with it; as, Trojaque nunc stares, Priamique arx alta maneres, Virg.

4. SIMILE, or Comparison, is when one thing is illustrated or heightened by comparing it to another; as, Alexander was as bold as a lion.

5. ANTITHESIS, or Opposition, is when things contrary or different are contrasted, to make them appear in the most striking light; as, Hannibal was cunning, but Fabius was cautious. Cæsar beneficiis ac munificentiá magnus habebatur, integritate vitæ, Cato, &c. Sall. Cat. 54. Ex hac parte pudor pugnat, illinc petulantia,