Duration of Action.

The action seems to cover three days:-Act I., one day. Interval for voyage. Act II., one day. Acts III., IV., V., one day. In order to get over the difficulty of this time-division various theories have been advanced, notably that of Double Time, propounded by Halpin and Wilson; according to the latter, Shakespeare counts off days and hours, as it were, by two clocks, on one of which the true Historic Time is recorded, and on the other the Dramatic Time, or a false show of time, whereby days, weeks, and months may be to the utmost contracted" (Furness, pp. 358-372).

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According to Mr. Fleay, the scheme of time for the play is as follows:

Act I., one day. Interval for voyage. Act II., one day. Act III., one day (Sunday). Interval of a week, at least. Act IV. Sc. i., ii., iii.; Act V. Sc. i., ii., iii., one day: where Act IV. begins with what is now Act III. Sc. iv., and Act V. with the present Act IV. Sc. iii.

Critical Comments.

I.

Argument.

I. Desdemona, a beautiful and high-born Venetian maiden, is wooed and won by Othello, a Moorish general, whose dusky skin cannot conceal a chivalrous and adventurous spirit such as women love. Desdemona's

father, Brabantio, learning of their secret marriage, is much incensed and goes before the Duke of Venice and complains that his daughter has been stolen from him. But it so happens that Othello's warlike qualities are in demand upon the very night in which these affairs culminate. He has been in the service of the Venetian government, and the state now requires his presence in Cypress to oppose a Turkish fleet. He is therefore suffered to depart in peace with his wife Desdemona, especially since she, in the council chamber, declares her love and confidence in him.

II. Iago, Othello's ancient or ensign, has sworn secret enmity against his master because the Moor raised Cassio instead of himself to the chief lieutenancy. The enmity has taken the form of carefully laid plots, which began with the very nuptial night of Othello. In Cyprus, whither Othello and his train repair, the plots have abundant time for ripening. A storm has wrecked the Turkish fleet, and Othello remains in command on land amid a general revelry, authorized by him, to celebrate the dispersion of the enemy and in honor of his own nuptials. During the feasting Iago makes Cassio drunk and involves him in a street brawl. Othello arrives on the scene and deprives the officer of his lieutenancy.

III. Iago advises Cassio to sue for favor and restoration of rank through Desdemona, since Othello will deny her nothing. Cassio, unsuspicious of treachery, obtains an interview with her, and Iago lures Othello to the scene innocent enough, but greeted by Iago with an ominous shake of the head. Othello, seeing the gesture, questions his ensign, whereupon the latter instils the poison of jealousy into his master's ears, making him to doubt Desdemona's relations with Cassio. The doubt is intensified when that lady, in the kindness of her heart, intercedes for Cassio. Henceforward Iago loses no opportunity to add to his master's jealousy. He procures by stealth a handkerchief given by Othello to Desdemona, and causes it to be found in Cassio's possession.

IV. Othello becomes convinced that his wife has been untrue to him. He determines upon her death, and charges his supposed friend Iago with the task of despatching Cassio. Nothing loth, Iago embroils Cassio in a night combat with Roderigo, a former suitor of Desdemona's, entangled in the meshes of Iago.

V. Cassio wounds Roderigo. Iago desires the death of both, and so, unseen, stabs Cassio. Meanwhile Othello goes to Desdemona's bedchamber and smothers her to death. Emilia, the wife of Iago and devoted servant of Desdemona, proves to Othello that the wife he has just murdered is innocent. Iago kills Emilia. Othello wounds Iago, then kills himself. Cassio, who still lives, is advanced to the government of Cyprus. Iago is reserved for lingering torture.

II.

Iago and Roderigo.

Admirable is the preparation, so truly and peculiarly Shakespearian, in the introduction of Roderigo, as the dupe on whom Iago shall first exercise his art, and in

so doing display his own character. Roderigo, without any fixed principle, but not without the moral notions and sympathies with honour, which his rank and connections had hung upon him, is already well fitted and predisposed for the purpose; for very want of character and strength of passion, like wind loudest in an empty house, constitute his character. The first three lines happily state the nature and foundation of the friendship between him and Iago-the purse-as also the contrast of Roderigo's intemperance of mind with Iago's coolness-the coolness of a preconceiving experimenter. The mere language of protestation

If ever I did dream of such a matter, abhor mewhich falling in with the associative link, determines Roderigo's continuation of complaint

Thou told'st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate

elicits at length a true feeling of Iago's mind, the dread of contempt habitual to those, who encourage in themselves, and have their keenest pleasure in, the expression of contempt for others. Observe Iago's high selfopinion, and the moral, that a wicked man will employ real feelings, as well as assume those most alien from his own, as instruments of his purposes:

And, by the faith of man,

I know my place, I am worth no worse a place.
I think Tyrwhitt's reading of "life" for "wife "-
A fellow almost damn'd in a fair wife-

the true one, as fitting to Iago's contempt for whatever did not display power, and that intellectual power. In what follows, let the reader feel how by and through the glass of two passions, disappointed vanity and envy, the very vices of which he is complaining, are made to act upon him as if they were so many excellences, and the more appropriately, because cunning is always admired and wished for by minds conscious of inward

weakness; but they act only by half, like music on an inattentive auditor, swelling the thoughts which prevent him from listening to it.

COLERIDGE: Notes and Lectures upon Shakespeare.

Roderigo thinks he is buying up Iago's talents and efforts. This is just what Iago means to have him think; and it is something doubtful which glories most, the one in having money to bribe talents, or the other in having wit to catch money. Still it is plain enough that Iago, with a pride of intellectual mastery far stronger than his love of lucre, cares less for the money than for the fun of wheedling and swindling others out of it..

Still, to make his scheme work, he must allege some reasons for his purpose touching the Moor: for Roderigo, gull though he be, is not so gullible as to entrust his cause to a groundless treachery; he must know something of the strong provocations which have led Iago to cherish such designs. Iago understands this perfectly: he therefore pretends a secret grudge against Othello, which he is but holding in till he can find or make a fit occasion; and therewithal assigns such grounds and motives as he knows will secure faith in his pretence; whereupon the other gets too warm with the anticipated fruits of his treachery to suspect any similar designs on himself. Wonderful indeed are the arts whereby the rogue wins and keeps his ascendancy over the gull! During their conversation, we can almost see the former worming himself into the latter, like a corkscrew into a cork.

HUDSON: The Works of Shakespeare.

Iago has no other aim than his own advantage. It is the circumstance that not he, but Cassio, has been appointed second in command to Othello, which first sets his craft to work on subtle combinations.

He