which the body rises is the whole effect of the impulse, and ought to be the whole measure of it. Secondly, His reasoning serves as well against him as for him: for may I not plead with as good reason at least thus? The velocity given by an impressed force is the whole effect of that impressed force; and therefore the force must be as the velocity. Thirdly, Supposing the height to which the body is raised to be the measure of the force, this principle overturns the conclusion he would establish by it, as well as that which he opposes. For, supposing the first velocity of the body to be still the same; the height to which it rises will be increased, if the power of gravity is diminished; and diminished, if the power of gravity is increased. Bodies descend slower at the equator, and faster towards the poles, as is found by experiments made on pendulums. If then a body is driven upwards at the equator with a given velocity, and the same body is afterwards driven upwards at Leipsic with the same velocity, the height to which it rises in the former case will be greater than in the latter; and therefore, according to his reasoning, its force was greater in the former case; but the velocity in both was the same; consequently the force is not as the square of the velocity any more than as the velocity.

Reflections on this Controversy.-On the whole, I cannot but think the controvertists on both sides have had a very hard task; the one to prove, by mathematical reasoning and experiment, what ought to be taken for granted; the other by the same means to prove what might be granted, making some allowance for impropriety of expression, but can never be proved.

If some mathematician should take it in his head to affirm that the velocity of a body is not as the space it passes over in a given time, but as the square of that space; you might bring mathematical arguments and experiments to confute him, but you would never by these force him to yield, if he was ingenious in his way; because you have no common principles left you to argue from, and you differ from each other, not in a mathematical proposition, but in a mathematical definition.

Suppose a philosopher has considered only that measure of centripetal force which is proportional to the velocity generated by it in a given time, and from this measure deduces several propositions. Another philosopher in a distant country, who has the same general notion of centripetal force, takes the velocity generated by it, and the quantity of matter together, as the measure of it. From this he deduces several conclusions, that seem directly contrary to those of the other. Thereupon a serious controvery is begun, whether centripetal force be as the velocity, or as the velocity and quantity of matter taken together. Much mathematical and experimental dust is raised, and yet neither party can ever be brought to yield; for they are both in the right, only they have been unlucky in giving the same name to different mathematical conceptions. Had they distinguished these measures of centripetal force as Newton has done, calling the one vis centripetæ quantitatis acceleratrix, the other, quantitatis motrix; all appearance of contradiction. had ceased, and their propositions, which seem so contrary, had exactly tallied.

INTRODUCTION.

To give a distinct account of the University of Glasgow, it is necessary to distinguish two periods of its existence, in which its constitution and appearance were extremely different-the period before the reformation from Popery, and that which followed it; to which may be subjoined, the present state of the University, with such alterations in the mode of conducting education as the improvements in literature, and the state of society, have suggested.

1. HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY BEFORE THE

REFORMATION.

Origin. At the request of King James II., Pope Nicolas V. granted a Bull, constituting a "studium generale, tam in theologia, ac jure canonico et civili, quam in arți

*This Account was published in the last or 21st volume of the Statistical Account of Scotland," in 1799, three years after the death of Reid. It was not communicated by the author himself to Sir John Sinclair, nor probably during his life, but, as the title bears, was "Transmitted by Pro essor Jardine in Name of the Principal and Professors of the Uni versity." In the "Statistical Account," there is no indication afforded in regard to the writer: but it has always been attributed to our author. It exhibits his character of thought and style, and even various of his peculiarities of expression (as professions for professorships); and, as I am informed by my learned friend, Dr Lee, was produced and f unded on as the work of Reid, in an action maintained, some thirty years ago, by sundry of his colleagues, (Mr Jardine among the number,) in regard to their collegiate pri. vileges. From internal evidence, it appears that the Account itself was drawn up in 1791, two years be. fore Reid's death; but the "Additions and Correc. tions" are of a more recent date, and probably by a different hand.

Before I became aware that this Account was the work of Reid, I had been struck by the singular cor. rectness of the view that is here taken of the constitution of the ancient University, and this, as it ap pears, not from any analogical knowledge of the history of the European universities in general, but abstracted from the records of the Glasgow Faculty of Arts a one.-H.

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bus, et quavis alia licita facultate," continue in all time to come in the city of Glasgow, as being a notable place, and fit for the purpose, by the temperature of the air, and the plenty of all kinds of provisions for human life; and, by his apostolical authority, ordained, That its doctors, masters, readers, aud students, shall enjoy all the privileges, liberties, honours, exemp tions, and immunities granted to the stu dium generale of his city of Bononia [Bologna.] He likewise appointed William Turnbull, then Bishop of Glasgow, and his successors in that see, to be the Rectors,+ called Chancellors, of the said studium; and to have the same authority over the doctors, masters, and scholars, as the Rectors [of the schools] have in the Studium Bononiense. This Bull is dated at Rome the 7th of the month of January 1450, and the fourth year of his pontificate.

Establishment. By the care of the bishop and his chapter, a body of statutes was prepared, and an university established in the year 1451 consisting, besides the Chancellor, of a Rector, Doctors, and Masters of the four faculties, who had taken their degrees in other universities; and students, who, after a course of study and examination, prescribed by their several faculties, might be promoted to academical degrees.That this institution might open with the greater celebrity, the bishop had procured and published a Bull from the Pope, granting an universal indulgence to all faithful

*This quotation has been corrected from the Bull.-H.

The term Rector is here used generically. The Rector, the proper head of the University, was by the University elected.-H.

The origin and nature of the office of Chancellor, in elation to the ancient universities, is a very curi ous subject, and one not at all known; but, as it can not be explained in a few words, I must not speak of i at present may observe, in general, that there is nothing in the privileges and regulations of the University oflasgow but what is common, I may say, to all the older Universitics.-H.

Christians, who should visit the cathedral church of Glasgow, in the year 1451. We have no account of the solemnity and ceremony of the first establishment; but it appears that David Cadzow, licentiate in cannon-law, and canon of Glasgow, was the first rector, (probably appointed by the bishop;) and that he was, by election, continued in 1452. There are more than 100 members mentioned, as incorporated by him in these two years; and most of them not young men; but secular or regular ecclesiastics, canons, rectors, vicars, and presbyters, abbots, priors, and monks." Andrew Stewart, brother to King James II., was incorporated in 1456, being then sub-dean of Glasgow.

Exemptions. The clergy would perhaps be the more disposed to attend the University, as, while they were incorporated members, they were, by royal charters and acts of Parliament, exempted from all taxes and public burdens. And Bishop Turnbull, in the year 1453, ordained, That the beneficed clergy in his diocese, who were regents or students in his university, or willing to study while they were teachable, should, upon asking his license, be exempted from residence in their cures, providing they took care to have the religious offices duly performed.

Royal Charter.-King James II., in the year 1453, at the request of Bishop Turnbull, granted a charter in favour of the University of Glasgow; by which the Rector, the Deans of the Faculties, the Procurators of the four nations, the Masters, Regents, and Scholars, studying in the said university, providing they be not prelates, as well as the Beadals, Writers, Stationers, and Parchment-makers,+ are exempted ab omnibus tributis, muneribus, exactionibus, taxationibus, collectis, vigiliis, ct pedagiis, aliquo modo infra regnum nostrum statuendis et levandis.

Privileges and Powers.-The same privilege was renewed by subsequent sovereigas, and confirmed by acts of Parliament. And even in taxes of an eighth part of all ecclesiastical livings, for the defence of the nation against an invasion of the English, the clergy in the University of Glasgow,

This circumstance was probably the cause why

the election of Rector was conceded to all the mem bers of the University, and not limited to the gra duated alone. In this particular, the custom of the Italian schools was preferred to that of Paris, by the example of which most of the transalpine univer. sities were regulated. This, with the circumstance that only one college arose within the University, enabled the regents of that college more easily to usurp from the graduates at large the rights of acadeinical teaching and legislation-to sink the public university in the private pædagogium.-H.

These were all the common supposts (subpositi) of a univers ty; and the following are only the immunities and privileges in the usual form granted to every other institution of the kind over Europe.-H.

on pleading their privilege, were exempted. This right of exemption from taxation, was pleaded by this University before the Lords of Council and Session, on the 20th of November 1633, and was sustained.

To these privileges, which the bishops of Glasgow obtained from the Crown and Parliament, they added others which were in their own power, in consequence of the ample civil and criminal jurisdiction which they possessed within their own dioceseto wit, The privilege of buying, selling, and transporting provisions, within the jurisdiction of the bishop, free of tolls and customs; the fixing the rent of houses or lodgings, possessed by persons belonging to the university, by a jury, the one half citizens, the other half persons belonging to the university; the obliging the magistrates of Glasgow, upon their election, to swear that they shall observe, and cause to be observed, the immunities, liberties, and statutes of the university; the granting the rector the next place, in precedence to the bishop, in all ceremonies and processions; the granting the privileges of incorporated members to all the servants of the univer sity; the self-denying clause in the chancellor's oath, [?] and which still makes a clause in it-" Se nihil in academiæ negolis sine moderatorum et magistrorum assentione tentaturum"-and particularly, the granting to the Rector, at first, the jurisdiction in all civil and pecuniary questions, respecting members of the university, and in crimes less atrocious; and afterwards, the extending it to all causes and crimes whatsoever; the power also, of inflicting ecclesiastical censure, even that of excommunication.

Capital Trial.-There is, however, only one instance on record of a capital trial before the rector's court, and that so late as the year 1670. That year, Robert Bartoune, a student, was indicted for murder, before Sir William Fleming, rector; but was acquitted by the jury.

II. ANCIENT CONSTITUTION.

The constitution of this learned body will appear, by taking a view of the parts into which it was divided, and the powers and obligations of each.

I. Election of Office-Bearers, &c.-The whole incorporated members, students, as well as doctors and masters, were divided into four parts, called the Quatuor Nationes, according to the place of their nativity. The whole realm of Scotland, and the Isles, was distinguished into four districts, under the names of Clydesdale, Teviotdale, Albany, and Rothesay. A meeting of the whole University was annually called, on the day next after St Crispin's day. This meeting

was called the Congregatio Universitatis: | and, being divided into the four Nations, each nation, by itself, chose a Procurator and an Intrant; and the intrants, meeting by themselves, made choice of a Rector and a Deputatus of each nation, who were assistants and Assessors to the Rector.* Functions. The Rector and Deputati had several functions.

1st, They were judges in all civil and criminal causes, wherein any member of the University was a party. Every memwho either sued or answered before any other court, was guilty of perjury, and incurred the penalty of expulsion The ecclesiastics in the University, to whatever diocese they belonged, could not be called before their rural deans.

2dly, All members were incorporated by the rector and deputati, after taking an oath to obey the rector and his successors, to observe the statutes, and preserve the privileges of the University, and not to reveal its secrets to its prejudice, to whatever station they should arive.

3dly, The rector and deputati were the council of the University; who deliberated upon, and digested all matters to be brought before the congregation of doctors and masters. And the determinations of the doctors and masters, in such cases, were accounted, in respect of authority, next to the statutes. Sometimes the congregatio universitatis was called occasionally for weighty matters; such as the making or repealing of statutes, or for an embassy to the higher powers, in name of the University. In such cases, each nation chose three or four deputati, who were joined with the rector and his deputati, to transact the business committed to them.

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crative employments; for the highest dignities in the church; for the councils of kings; for the offices of judges at home; and of ambassadors to foreign courts. To train men to eminence in these professions, was the first intention of universities. The Arts, under which was comprehended logic, physics, and morals, were considered as a necessary introduction to the learned professions, and, therefore, a necessary part of study in every university.

Their Plan. The plan upon which universities were incorporated by the Popes, was very like to that of incorporated towns and boroughs, and perhaps was borrowed from it. The university corresponds to the whole incorporation of the borough; the different faculties to the different companies of the trades or crafts into which the borough is divided. A company is a smaller incorporation, subordinate to that of the borough; has the power of choosing its own head, or deacon; and an authority over those who are in the course of being trained to the same craft. The companies in the incorporated towns were anciently called collegia, or colleges; and the whole incorporation, comprehending all the companies, was called the universitas of that town. These names were, by analogy, applied to corporations of the learned professions, and at last appropriated to them. The word used in Pope Nicolas' Bull is not universitas but studium generale; and the univer sity of Bononia he calls Studium Bonon iense: but, in the charter of King James II. in 1453, we have-Alma universitas Glasguensis, filia nostra dilecta.*

Government. The government of a faculty was very similar to that of the University. Each faculty had its own statutes, determining the time of study, and the exercises and examinations requisite for attaining degrees in that faculty. Each chose annually its own dean, its own bursarius, and sometimes four deputati as a council to the dean. We know very little of the three higher faculties in this Uni

II. Faculties-A second division of the University was into its different Faculties. The Pope's Bull mentions four by name-to wit, Theology, Canon Law, Civil Law, and the Arts. All others are comprehended in a general clause, et in quavis alia licita facultate.In the dark ages, the professions of theology, canon, and civil law, were called the three learned professions; as being the only professions in which learning was expected or thought necessary. They fitted men for the most honourable and lu

* See above, note, 721, b.-H.

of their statutes or of their transactions. There are only two memorandums relating to them in the University record. In the first, we are told, that, on the 29th of July 1460, the venerable David Cadzow, then rector of the University, began, in the chapter house of the predicant friars, the clergy and masters being there convened, to read the rubric in the canon law, de vita et honestate clericorum; and that he con

for an incorporated gencrality. It has nothing to do *Universitas, as originally used, is simply a word with any complement of studies. Collegium is am biguous in its aca lemical employment; sometimes being applied to denote the public sub-incorporation of a faculty; sometimes a private incorporation of certain individuals of the university.-H.