a. As a general thing, the good-will of an audience is already secured toward the speaker, who has been previously designated as the orator, lecturer, or preacher. Whenever this may be fairly presumed, nothing more is needed. When a speaker is presented unexpectedly to the audience, the case may be different, and a modest, brief excuse for occupying the time may be given.

b. In most instances, the hearers give a ready attention to a new speaker; when this is the case, much is lost by those introductory remarks, which many use merely from habit, or vanity.

c. When prejudices do exist in the minds of those addressed, they should be removed in the introduction, unless the speaker feels sure of being able to meet them in the subsequent parts.

Caution. Nothing tires an audience more, or disgusts it sooner than a useless introduction. Hence, having considered your introduction, next consider whether or not the whole, or a greater part may be omitted; and omit, first, all that you see may be spared; second, all, concerning the necessity of which, you entertain a doubt. Demosthenes used very short introductions, or none at all; Cicero's were more lengthy; in the Bible, very few are used. When you do use them, observe the following;

RULES FOR INTRODUCTIONS.

1. The Introduction should be easy and natural.

In order to appear natural, an introduction should appear to grow out of the subject; hence, its composition may be deferred until the rest of the speech has been arranged. A common fault with introductions is, that very many begin to talk about themselves, instead of the real subject, without seeming to observe that nothing could be more uninteresting to their hearers. Cicero says, "When I have planned and digested all the materials, lastly it is my habit to think with what introduction I shall begin. For, whenever I have attempted to frame the introduction first, nothing has ever occurred to me for that purpose, except it was foreign, trifling, or vulgar."

2. The character and length of the introduction should be suited to the discourse that is to follow.

There is a fitness in all things. Nothing could be more absurd, than a high sounding introduction to a trivial discourse; or a sprightly introduction to a funeral sermon. If it be too lengthy, the audience may feel that "The mountain labored, and brought forth a ridículously little mouse."

3. Let your

introduction be modest and unassuming.

An audience comprises many elements in which it is consciously superior to any one individual, and hence not only should the introduction itself be modest, but every look, gesture, attitude, and tone of the speaker, should seem to acknowledge the superiority so far as may be done without sacrificing the speaker's own consciousness of self-respect, which, when properly maintained, serves to enhance the value of the respect, and deference, which he shows to his audience. There are occasions, however, on which boldness is not only admissible, but is absolutely required; as, in defence of human rights, virtue, innocence; at such times let the speaker be bold, if need be, even to martyrdom.

4. Make special efforts to have your expressions correct in every point.

This is necessary in all parts of a discourse, but especially in the beginning, when the mind of the hearer is less occupied, and so more free to criticise the speaker's style, and manner, which for this reason should have, "A correct plainness, and an elegant simplicity, so that it shall seem to be presented accurately rather than craftily."

5. Let your introduction be calmly earnest. On the one hand, avoid the appearance of listlessness, and on the other, the appearance of too much vehemence.

Naturally emotions are excited as the discourse is carried forward; but there may be occasions, when the bare mention of the subject will be sufficient to arouse the deepest feeling.

6. Do not in the introduction anticipate any of the arguments, or statements of the subsequent parts.

The reason of this rule is, that, if stated in the preface, the charm of novelty is lost; and, beside, the impression of a repetition is produced in the mind of the hearer.

Second. The Statement and the Division of the subject. The statement or enunciation of the subject should be distinct and clear. For the Division of the subject see the Rules for Division or Classification on the sixty-ninth page.

In philosophical addresses, it is generally best to announce the divisions or parts of the discourse; but, in popular addresses, it gives the appearance of too much stiffness and formality. Whether the divisions be stated, or not, care should be taken by the speaker to follow out a well arranged classification, so that those, who do observe, may dis

cover his plan, and thus be enabled to understand and remember the discourse.

Third, The Narration or statement of the circumstances of the case, and the Explication.or unfolding of the principles and rules involved in it. These illustrate the state or condition of affairs, and enable the hearers to appreciate the subsequent reasoning more easily; hence, they should be a clear, concise, and truthful as possible.

Fourth. The Reasonings or Arguments are intended to convince the hearers that some proposition is true, right, and good, or the opposite; and, to lead them to adopt a certain course of action in regard to it.

a. When the arguments are advanced before the statement of the proposition is made, the speaker is said to reason Analytically; when the statement precedes the arguments, he is said to reason Synthetically

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RULES FOR REASONINGS OR ARGUMENTS.

1. Make a proper selection of your arguments; First, as to fitness or strength; and SECOND, as to their number.

Some arguments may be true in themselves, and yet it may be injudicious to present them, because of some association connected with them; others may be weak, or frivolous, etc. Too many arguments should not be presented at once. It is a safe rule, to present no more arguments, than suffice to produce conviction.

2. Arrange your arguments according to the nature, and according to the strength of each.

a. According to nature or kind, we have three classes of Reasons or Arguments; first, those which show that a statement or proposition is true or false; second, those which show that the thing proposed is right or wrong; and third, those which show that the thing proposed is profitable or unprofitable.

b. In arranging according to the strength of the arguments, we are governed by the relative force of the arguments themselves. If the arguments vary in strength, arrange those of each class so that each shall be stronger than its predecessor, thus making your reasoning climacteric.

If only two be strong, place one of them first, and the other last; making the weaker ones intermediate.

If on y one be decidedly strong, place it first.

If all be strong, present them as distinctly as possible; but, if all be weak, present them as compactly as possible.

Fifth. The Pathetic or Appeals to the Passions is the address to feelings in order to produce action.

Mankind are convinced by appeals to the reason and judgment, but they are moved to action by appeals to the feelings, or passions, because these are the main-springs of human actions.

RULES FOR THE PATHETIC OR APPEALS TO PASSIONS.

1. Consider FIRST, whether the subject admits of an appeal; and SECOND, the place, or part in the discourse, at which it should be made.

The hearers must feel that an appeal is both proper and well-timed, or they may be disgusted by its introduction.

2. Introduce a pathetic appeal without previous notice to the hearer.

The more naturally and easily an appeal to the feelings is brought into a discourse, the more acceptable and efficacious it will be.

3. Be sure to distinguish between an argument to show your hearers that they ought to be moved, and an appeal to their feelings.

The argument is merely a preparative, the appeal is the thing itself. "To every emotion or passion, nature has adapted a set of corresponding objects; and, without setting these before the mind, it is not in the power of any orator to raise that emotion. I am warmed with gratitude, I am touched with compassion, not when a speaker shows me that these are noble dispositions, and that it is my duty to feel them; or when he exclaims against me for my coldness and indifference. All this time, he is speaking only to my reason, or conscience. He must describe the kindness and tenderness of my friend; he must set before me the distress suffered by the person, for whom, he would interest me; then, and not until then, my heart begins to be touched, my gratitude, or my compassion begins to flow."

4. Never attempt to move others, while you yourself are unmoved.

Nothing, save the genuine feeling, can suggest the thoughts suitable to affect the feelings of others. Hence, the necessity that the narrator

should mingle much with his fellow-beings, and should always cultivate feelings of real sympathy with their distresses. "The internal emotion of the speaker adds a pathos to his words, his looks, his gestures, and to his whole manner, which exerts a power almost irresistible over those in his presence."

5. Study carefully the language, utterance, attitudes, and gestures of the passions.

In doing this, we must observe closely the language, and conduct of those affected by any passion or emotion. The language of passion is loud, strong, and varied; the actions quick, and violent; the head is now thrown back, now sidewise, and now thrust forward. The language of grief is low, weak, and monotonous; the movements slow and irregular; the head and body are bent forward; - "bowed down with grief."

6. Do not attempt to introduce any thing of a nature foreign to the pathetic in this part of your discourse; above all, beware of all attempts to reason here. Nothing sooner extinguishes pathos.

7. Do not try to keep up the pathetic too long in regard to the same idea.

These emotions are too violent to be lasting; and hence, having been duly excited, and indulged, it is proper that the feelings be permitted to subside. In doing this, glide into a less exciting train of thought, as quietly, and smoothly as possible.

Sixth. The Conclusion or Peroration is the passage, which prepares the minds of the hearers for the end of the discourse.

There is a certain note in music, called the Leading or Preparatory note, because it leads to a termination, or prepares the ear for the reception of the final note of a strain. So, in a train of thought, there are certain leading or preparatory ideas, which prepare the mind for the cadence. Sometimes, it is the pathetic part; sometimes, the summing up of the arguments; and sometimes, it is an inference drawn from the whole discourse.

RULES FOR A CONCLUSION.

1. Stop when you are through, but not too suddenly.

There is always one good point, at which to stop. If this be passed the difficulty of finding another is increased, and much of the grace of the discourse is lost.