The antecedent noun is sometimes repeated with the relative. proper Latin representative is ejus; not so the his in the second; Cæsar is fond of this construction :

Et ipse is used with the force of our even; alone, that is, by character and discipline. itself, without going further, as

THE POPULAR EDUCATOR.

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
EDUCATION.-V.

HOW TO TEACH.

In this paper we propose to give some account of the most
useful methods of teaching. To enter fully into the details of
this subject would be to write a book; but we trust that, even
in the small space allotted to us, we may be able to offer some
useful hints.

Given, a person well versed in general knowledge, and specially acquainted with the details of some particular branches, the problem which presents itself for solution here is indicated by the question, "In what way shall such a person impart to others the knowledge which he has won for himself?" It is clear that the answer resolves itself into two parts: first, as to the manner in which the teacher should arrange and prepare the various parts of each subject of instruction, so that the easy should come before the difficult, and every step be a preparation for that which is to follow it; and, secondly, that such plans should be adopted as will best tend to excite the attention of the pupil, and dispose him to exert all his mental powers in order to comprehend, to appropriate, and to assimilate the instruction which is being given to him. In selecting these plans, and still more in using them, the teacher should bear continually in mind that the communication of knowledge is to be employed as the means of improving and training the mental powers, and, where religious instruction is concerned, the moral emotions.

1. The first of these plans or methods of teaching which we shall notice is the rote or memory method. In this system certain text-books are put into the hands of the pupils, and a portion is daily given to them to commit to memory. The action of the teacher is confined to appointing the lessons, hearing them recited, and deciding when the pupil may pass on to the next portion of his work. This method is probably very ancient, and was widely prevalent in our own country until recent times. We can scarcely conceive anything more irksome, more insufferably disgusting, to an educated and thoughtful man, than to be compelled to spend months and years in such an employment; nor any mode of instruction more fitted to cramp and dwarf the mind of the pupil, and fill him with dislike, contempt, and dread of the man who could compel him to spend his youthful years in the pursuit of knowledge on such a road as this. It had, however, its good points, and may occasionally be employed with good effect by a judicious teacher. But a lesson of this kind, where the very words are to be learnt in their exact order, should seldom, if ever, be given without a previous explanatory exercise. If, for instance, a passage of Scripture or a hymn is appointed, the teacher should take care that it is well understood before it is committed to memory. For the enunciations in Euclid, and, indeed, in all cases where it is important that the words in their exact order should be remembered, this method may be employed with advantage. And when such lessons are recited to the teacher, not the least assistance should be given in the way of prompting or suggesting, when the learner is at fault; all help of this nature defeats the object for which the lesson is given; if it is not learnt perfectly, it is useless. If the pupil cannot recall the words of the lesson when required, without help, he must either have his prompter at hand when required-a very improbable occurrence or his labour will have been in vain.

2. Another popular method of giving instruction is by means of lectures. Crowds of people of both sexes, of all ages, and of all degrees of knowledge and mental power, flock to hear a popular lecturer on some interesting topic in science or literature. They sit passively, and listen with differing degrees of attention, while the speaker pours forth eloquent platitudes and superficial remarks on the subject of discourse; and after an hour or two spent in this manner the multitudes disperse to their homes, to admire for a short period, and then to forget. It is very doubtful whether any appreciable amount of lasting good is produced by exercises of this kind-they furnish a pleasing amusement, and but little more. hour of earnest and patient private study will do more to train We have no doubt that one the mind, discipline the intellect, and fit it for the acquisition retention, and utilisation of knowledge than almost any number of lectures such as these. But there is another class of lectures to which these remarks will not apply with equal force. In many places of instruction courses of lectures are delivered on given

subjects, and the students take notes while the lectures are in progress, and read text-books on the subject during the intervals. An examination at the close of the course tests the degree in this case, however, the private study is of equal value at least which the pupils have benefited by their attendance. Even in with the public lecture.

general use, both in schools and private classes; in other words, 3. The interrogative method of teaching is now in very art requiring for its acquisition a large amount of practice, and it may also be correctly termed the art of questioning; it is an probably a natural liking for the work of teaching. No quantity of explanation and examples will make a skilful questioner; the matter is a practical one, and is to be learnt by doing. Questions may be divided into several kinds, such as introductory questions, explanatory or teaching questions, and questions of examination. Introductory questions are used before beginning to discover what he knows of the subject, and to connect the a new lesson, in order to ascertain the state of the pupil's mind, lesson with those which have gone before. The teacher thus learns how to suit his instruction to the wants of his scholars, and avoids the waste of time and power which would arise from dwelling long on what is already known. This connection of present teaching with past knowledge is most important. The memory, as we have explained at some length in a previous paper, is so constituted that it is unable to retain isolated knowledge. tenacious grasp, whatever is firmly linked with previous knowIt remembers best, and holds with the most ledge. Explanatory or teaching questions are employed during involved in the lesson is questioned into the pupils. In a lesson the progress of the lesson. By their means the instruction teacher might ask, What is the form of the earth ? and the pupils on "The Form and Motions of the Earth," for instance, the would probably answer, Round. Teacher: How do you know? Pupils: We have been told so. it? Silence, and then the answer, No. Teacher: Which of you have been by the seaside? Teacher: But can you prove the land, and sailing out to sea? which did you lose sight Did you watch a vessel leaving of first-the masts or the body of the vessel? Answer: The masts. Why? Because they are not so large hull. If the sea were flat, which would have first disappeared? Answer: The masts were lost sight of? The sea. as the hull. That the sea is round. Give me another word. Convex. What, then, hid the hull from view before the what gives this form to the sea? Answer: The earth. What does this prove? then, is the form of the earth? Answer: Round. [Some of the more obvious answers in this example have been omitted, in order to economise space.] The teacher might then speak of eclipses of the moon, and by questions bring out the facts that they are caused by the shadow of the earth being thrown on the circular. This could not happen were not the earth convex in moon. and that in every case the outline of this shadow is every direction, and therefore it is a sphere, or of some form nearly approaching it. This simple and brief example will serve to make clear, in some measure, what we mean by the term "teaching questions." tion, as in a lecture, we lead the pupils to make the inferences and gain the knowledge for themselves; the mind is kept active, Without actually giving the informaand therefore grows and strengthens, and the pupil takes pleasure in the exercise, because he feels that he is at work the pupil to get the required information for himself should, of and that his labour is profitable. The same process of leading course, be continued throughout the lesson.

And
What,

advantage in the course of a reading lesson. If the scholars are allowed to read through the lesson without explanation, the This mode of questioning may also be used with great mechanical difficulty of making out the words, and, in most cases, the frequent occurrence of phraseology to which they are unaccustomed, will prevent them from giving the requisite attention to the meaning of what they read. great importance that appropriate questions should be put while the lesson is going on. It is therefore of out of the pupils rather than told them, on the principle which we be taken up as they occur, and the meaning should be questioned Difficult words and phrases should have just illustrated. most severely the skill, tact, and knowledge of the teacher; but the benefit conferred by it, both on himself and his pupils, can An exercise of this kind often taxes scarcely be overrated. nation questions should be freely put, with books closed or When the reading is completed, exami

open, as may appear most suitable to the nature of the lesson | painting. "The first division in every exercise," says Mr. Stow, and the mental status of the pupils. The object of the teacher "is to picture out the whole subject or point of a subject ;" that is, in this part of the exercise will be to ascertain, first, whether to make it clear to the mind in all its necessary details. It is the lesson has been understood; next, whether the class has a not too much to say, that no teacher can expect success in his clear and definite comprehension of its general scope and calling who is not tolerably expert in this important part of it. meaning, and how far they are acquainted with its details; and, The methods of teaching which we have thus briefly brought lastly, whether they have a clear remembrance of it as a whole. under the notice of our readers are those which are principally We would gladly give examples of the two last-named employed in the best schools both of this and other countries. divisions of the interrogatory method of teaching, but we must They are used, for the most part, in instructing classes of from close by offering two or three hints on this part of our subject. ten to fifty scholars, but are also applicable to the instruction of First, each question should grow, as it were, out of the preceding individual pupils. But, after all, the spirit and earnestness of answer; and yet, on the whole, should follow each other so the teacher are greater elements of success than the skilful systematically that all the answers put together would form a application of any methods, important though these latter unconnected account of the subject of the lesson. Secondly, doubtedly are. Although instructing his pupils in numbers, he questions are bad which require only yes or no as an answer. must seek to become acquainted with their individual character If such a question is put, the teacher should ask why imme- and progress. He must endeavour to bind them to himself by diately afterwards, so as to elicit the reason for giving it, and the bonds of love and sympathy-to stimulate the indolent, in order to lead the pupil to think. Thirdly, questions should encourage the timid, and assist those who are manfully struggling be so framed as not to suggest the answer. Fourthly, every with difficulties. Thus showing himself the friend, as well as question should be definite, if possible, admitting of only one the teacher, of those under his care, he will find his work a answer. Fifthly, the answer must not be suggested by giving happy one, and will receive the gratitude of men and women, one or more words of it. Lastly, the language of the question who in youth obtained the priceless blessings of his wise in. should be simple and clear, and it should be put in as few words struction, friendly guidance, and loving help. as possible. It will be seen that the object of these rules is to render the lesson a searching mental exercise. The interrogatory method has been aptly styled "the ploughshare of the mind." When skilfully used, it becomes a wonderful quickener of ideas, unveils the errors of speech and thought which may have lain before unnoticed, and imparts a relish and intense interest to the subject of study which it is delightful to witness, and still more delightful to feel.

Young teachers, both in Sunday and day schools, ought to spare no efforts to become proficient in the art of questioning. We would recommend them to place written interrogatory exercises as a subject on their programme of evening studies, and to spend at least one hour a week in careful application to it. A good plan is to take a portion of a Scripture or secular reading lesson, and write down all the questions and explanations on paper which the teacher would deem it necessary to give were the class actually before him. These questions should be divided into the different kinds mentioned above, and the rules previously given should be carefully borne in mind. But this written exercise must on no account be slavishly followed when the lesson is actually given, nor should it be near at hand even for reference. As the questions given during the progress of the lesson must depend on the answers of the pupils, the teacher must not allow himself to be cramped and fettered in any way by his previously written exercise. At another time he may take some subject of instruction, as "the manufacturing towns of England;" arrange his ideas on it in the shape of written notes; and then write out the questions which would most likely be required to bring out the lesson in a natural and orderly manner, were the pupils really in his presence. In this way the young teacher would find himself continually growing in readiness and teaching power, and his pupils would reap the lasting benefit of his exertions.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-LIX.

§ 61.-DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
(1.) The peculiar office of a demonstrative pronoun is to
point out the relative position of the object to which it refers.
Of these there are three, namely-

Dieser, this (pointing to something near at hand).
Jener, that (indicating something remote).

Der, this or that (referring to things in either position).
(2.) Diefer and jener are declined after the Old Form of adjec-
tives; thus-

§ 62.-OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEMONSTRATIVES. (1.) The neuters dieses (contracted form tics), jenes, and vas are, like c8 (§ 134. 1.), employed with verbs, without distinction of gender or number; thus:-Dies ist ein Mann, this is a man; ties find Menschen, these are men; jenes ist eine Frau, that is a woman, etc.

Jener

(2.) Diefer, when denoting immediate proximity, signifies this; as, in dieser Welt ist alles vergänglich, in this world all is transitory. More generally, however, it answers in use to that. always denotes greater remoteness than tiefer, and signifies that yon, yonder; as, jener Stern ist kaum sichtbar, that (or yonder) star is hardly visible.

4. The elliptical method. This mode of teaching consists in leaving out one or more words in a sentence, and allowing the scholars to supply these words. It is intended at once as a test of their attention, and as a means of keeping it closely rivetted on the subject of the lesson. It is useful when employed along with the interrogatory method. The elliptical method seems first to have been brought into public notice by Mr. Davia Stow, of Glasgow. We may give the following as an example: the words in italics are those supplied by the children. The lesson is on the camel, and the teacher is speaking about the feet of that animal. He proceeds to say, "What kind of feet has the camel?... soft: very spongy and... soft, like a... lady's hand; not dry, like the... horse's feet, but soft and full of moisture, like the palm of my... hand. (Here the teacher points to the palm of his hand.) What has the camel to walk upon, children? ... Sand, soft... sand, and therefore God has made its feet... soft, and full of... sap, that they may be ... able to walk in the... deserts for a... long time." Ellipses without questions would be tame, dull, and comparatively useless. 5. The "picturing-out" method. This is a name given by Mr. Stow to the method of illustration or description in words, (5.) Sometimes ber is, for the sake of greater clearness, emwhich is so essential to success in teaching. It is, in fact, word-ploved in place of a possessive; as, er malte feinen Better und dessen

Jener and dieser, when employed to express contrast or comparison, often find their equivalents in the English expressions the former-the latter; that, that one-this, this one.

(3.) The demonstrative der, die, das, is distinguishable from the article with which it is identical in form, by being uttered with greater emphasis, as in the following example: der Mann hat es gesagt, nicht jener, this man has said it, not that one. (4.) The form dep is chiefly found in compounds; as, deßwegen, on this account.

THE POPULAR EDUCATOR.

Sohn, he painted his cousin and his son; literally, and the son
of this one, i.e., the cousin's son.

(6.) The pronouns, both demonstrative and determinative,
are frequently made more intensive by the particle eben, even,
very: eben diese Blume, this very flower; eben das Kind. that same
child; eben derselbe, the very same.

§ 63.-DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS.
(1.) The pronouns of this class are commonly set down
among the demonstratives. Their distinctive feature, however,
is that of being used where an antecedent is to be limited by a
relative clause succeeding, and so rendered more or less promi-
nent or emphatic; thus, der, welcher klug handelt, verdient Lob, he
(that man) who acts wisely, deserves praise. From this use
they derive the name determinative. They are-

Der, that; that one; he.

Derjenige, that; that person (strongly determinative).
Derselbe, the same (denoting identity).

Selbiger, the same (seldom used).

Solcher, such (marking similarity of kind or nature). (2.) Der, when used in connection with a noun, is declined like the demonstrative ber-that is, like the definite article; when used absolutely, it differs from the demonstrative ter only in the genitive plural; taking derer instead of deren.

(3.) Derjenige and derselbe are compounded of ter and the parts jenige and selbe respectively. In declining, both parts of each must be inflected; ter, like the article, and jenige and selbe after the New Form of adjectives; thus

Nom. Derjenige,

Singular.

MASC.

Gen. Desjenigen,

derjenigen,

desjenigen.

Dat. Demjenigen,

derjenigen,

demjenigen.

diejenige,

dasjenige.

Plural.

FOR ALL GENDERS.

Acc. Denjenigen, (4.) Selbiger, selbige, selbiges, and solcher, solche, folches, are declined after the Old Form of adjectives; the latter, however, when the indefinite article (ein, cine, ein) precedes, takes the Mixed form.

When ein comes after solcher, the latter is not inflected at all; as, solch ein Mann, such a man.

Nearly synonymous with solcher are the words desgleichen, der. gleichen, seinesgleichen, ihresgleichen, all which are indeclinable; as, ich habe keinen Umgang mit dergleichen Leuten, I have no intercourse with such people.

Wer, who, he who, she who, or So, which. The latter word is nearly obsolete; it is indeclinable, being [that. an adverb used as a relative.

(2.) Welcher, who or which, is declined like dieser (see § 61. 2). (3.) Der, that, is declined as in § 61. 4.

(4.) Wer, who, he who, she who, or that, is declined thus:

Singular.

MASC. AND FEM.

Nom. Wer,

Gen. Wessen (or weß),

Dat. Wem,

Acc. Wen,

NEUT.

was. weg.

was.

Wer has no plural, but, like c8, is sometimes used before plural verbs; as, Wer sind diese Leute? who are these people? The dative singular neuter is wanting, but is supplied by an adverbial compound; as, wozu (wo+zu), whereto, or to which; womit, where-with, with what; wovon, whereof, of what, etc.

§ 65.-OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVES. (1.) Of the pronouns declined above, welcher, welche, welches is the only one that can be used in conjunction with a noun, after the manner of an adjective; thus, welcher Mann, which man (not wer Mann); and, except when so joined with a noun, the genitive (both singular and plural) of welcher is never used, but,

in place of it, the corresponding parts of der; that is, effen, deren, dessen, for the singular, and teren for the plural; as, der Mann, dessen (not welches) Freund ich bin, the man, whose friend I am; die Bäume, deren (not welcher) Blüthen abgefallen sind, the trees whose blossoms have fallen off.

(2.) Der, die das, as a relative, like the English word that, is genitive of the latter (welches, welcher, welches) being the same in used as a sort of substitute for the regular relative. Thus its form as the nominative masculine and neuter, might occasion genitive is employed in place of that of welcher, because the mistake. So after the pronouns of the first and second person (and of the third, when used for the second) welcher is never em ployed, but ter, thus :

be omitted; or the order of the words being reversed (ich der, In each ease here, the personal pronoun is repeated after the instead of ter ich), the rendering may be I, who saw, etc. It relative. In translating, of course, the pronoun repeated is to must be added, that when the pronoun is not repeated, the tive; as, tu warst es, der es mir sagte, thou wast the one that told verb will be ir the third person, and in agreement with the rela

me so.

(3.) Wer, was, is an indefinite relative, employed wherever any uncertainty exists about the antecedent; thus, können Sie mir sagen, wer rieses gethan hat? can you tell me who has done this? Ich weiß nicht, was er sagte, I do not know what he said.

(4.) Often, wer, was has at once the force of both a relative and an antecedent; as, wer auf dem Wege der Tugend wandelt, ist glücklich, he that walks in the path of virtue, is happy; was gerecht ist, verdient Lob, what, or that which is right, deserves praise.

after the word which it represents; was may or may not begin a clause, and may or may not come after its proper antecedent; (5.) Wer always begins a clause or sentence, and never comes thus, wer nicht hören will, der muß fühlen, he who will not hear, must habe, all that I have seen; was gerecht ist, verdient Lob, what is feel; ich sage, was ich weiß, I say what I know; alles, was ich g-schen which, or what account. right, deserves praise. The form wes occurs in the compounds weßwegen, weßhalb, on

(6.) Welcher, -e, -es, is often employed as an indefinite adjective pronoun (see § 35. 1).

§ 66.-INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. questions-are the following: (1.) The interrogative pronouns-that is, those used in asking

(2.) They are the same in form as the relatives or rather the relatives themselves, employed in a different way. Wer, was, and welcher, welche, welches, are declined just as when they are relatives, except that the pronoun welches, -e, -ce, when interrogative, never adopts the genitive of der.

(3.) Wer and was (who? what?) can never be joined with a noun. They are used when the question is put in a manner general and indefinite. Welcher, welche, welches, on the other hand, have a more definite reference, and may be employed adjectively; thus, welcher Mann? which man? etc.

für ein Mann? what sort of a man? was für eine Frau? what sort
(4.) Was für ein (literally, what for a?) is a form used in
of a woman? was für ein Kind? what kind of a child?
inquiring as to the kind, quality, or species of a thing; as, was

ein; which, when the thing referred to in the question is
(5, 6, 7.) The only part of was für ein capable of inflection is
expressed, takes the form of the indefinite article; when it is
thus, was für.
left understood, ein is inflected like an adjective of the Old Form.
The plural, in both cases, omits the article, and stands simply

omitted in the singular, especially before words denoting mate-
§ 67.-OBSERVATIONS ON THE INTERROGATIVES.
(1.) Observe further, that cin, in was für ein, is sometimes