From these instances it appears that—

Adjectives in the superlative degree, numeral adjectives, and adjectives denoting states of mind, govern nouns in the genitive. Indeed, as in English, so in Latin, all partitives govern a genitive. Accordingly, an adjective in the comparative degree may have a genitive dependent on it; as

Fratrum tuorum, soror, sum major natu.

I am the older of thy (two) brothers, sister.

An adjective in the comparative degree takes after it a noun or pronoun in the ablative; as

Dignior est mulier marito.

The wife is more worthy than her husband.

5. Government may also take place by means of prepositions. The signification of Latin prepositions, and the cases which they require, have been generally spoken of in Lessons in Latin, XVIII. (Vol. II., page 150).

The subject is here referred to in order that the student may have under his eye at once a complete view of what in Latin is involved in government. A few remarks and examples of a critical kind may be added here, if only to renew the reader's impression, and aid in presenting to his mind, government as a whole.

Prepositions, originally, have reference to place. Other references are derivative. Prepositions assist in making clearer the distinctions and definitions which in Latin are in a general

Instead of the ablative you may, by employing quam, put the way indicated by the oblique cases, that is, all the cases but

same case after the verb as it has before it; as

Dignior est mulier quam maritus.
Digniorem esse mulierem quam maritum confirmo.
4. An adverb may govern a noun: for example-
Gallus marime omnium nobilium Græcis litteris studuit.
Gallus studied Greek most of all the nobles.
Justitia nihil expetit præmii.

Justice seeks no reward.

The general fact may be stated thus:-
Adverbs denoting quantity, and some adverbs of place, govern
nouns in the genitive case.
Maxime, which governs omnium nobilium, is an adverb of
quantity. Nihil, which governs præmii (literally, nothing of
reward), is an adverb of quantity; nihil might be considered as
an indeclinable noun; then the instance would fall under the
rule" One noun governs another in the genitive case."
As an example of an adverb of place governing the genitive,
take this:-

Ubi gentium sumus?
Where in the world are we?

To this category may be referred such phrases as

Eo impudentia processit ;

He went to such a pitch of impudence;

where impudentia is a genitive governed by the adverb of place, eo. Similar is the form tunc temporis, then of time, at that time.

Among adverbs governing a genitive, it is usual to place gratiâ, causâ, etc., but these are really nouns in the ablative; ergo, which governs a genitive, is also a (Greek) noun in the ablative; and instar (after the manner of), classed among the adverbs that govern the genitive, is an indeclinable noun which signifies outline, likeness.

1. Nullum malum est vehementius et importunius quam invidia. 2. Quid cælati argenti, quid stragularum, quid pictarum tabularum apud illum putatis esse? 3. Ut animus corpore est nobilior, ita virtus præstantior est robore et externa specie. 4. Quanto honesta mors turpi vità est potior! 5. Quotusquisque philosophorum est tecum? 6. Tribuni legem promulgarunt ut consulus alter ex plebe crearetur. 7. Eorum beneficiorum partim ejusmodi sunt ut ad universos cives pertineant, partim singulos ut attingant. 8. Tibi divitiarum affatim est. 9. Terrorum et fraudis abunde est. 10. Tu me amoris magis quam honoris servavisti gratiâ? 11. Simulabat se se negotii gratià properare. 12. Omues dono militari virtutis ergo donati sunt. 13. Unus ille dies mihi immortalitatis erat instar, quo in patriam redii

EXERCISE 183.-ENGLISH-LATIN.

1. The king's wife is fair. 2. The king's wife is fairer than the general's wife. 3. Which of the two is the wiser ? 4. Socrates is the wisest of mortals. 5. What bread (what of bread) hast thou? 6. To such a pitch of madness has he proceeded, that all men call him a fool. 7. The soldiers came on account of the war. 8. For the honour of the general, rewards have been given to each of the soldiers. 9. I have enough of books. 10. That book is to me as good as (instar)

all books.

the nominative. Thus, we may say, versatur hoc loco, he moves about in this place; but if we wish to mark the spot more particularly, we say, versatur in hâc urbe, he moves about in this city.

The usages of prepositions in Latin are very various; they can scarcely be reduced to rule, nor can some of them be explained on general principles. There is no resource but to study separate instances, and, while imitating them, observe and apply the general doctrines already set forth.

The relation of a substantive to a substantive, which is man, the words of the book, is in Latin expressed not by a preexpressed in English by the preposition of, as, the head of the position, but by the genitive case, as, hominis caput; verba verbal force, and so dispenses with the use of prepositions. Thus, we find in good authorities these examples :Mansio Formiis, the stay at Formia. Refrigeratio æstate, cooling in sum

libri. There are instances in which the noun has a kind of

mor.

In other instances prepositions
Reditus in cœlum, return to heaven.
Adventus ad urbem, approach to
the city.

Despectus in mare, the look-down
into the sea.

Excessus e vità, departure from life.
Ex Italia itinera in Macedoniam,

the ways from Italy into Mace-
donia.

Civilo bello victor, conqueror in the civil war.

are used with verbal nouns, as—
Castra ad Bagradam, the camp near
Bagrada.

Cæsaris in Hispaniâ res secundæ,
Cæsar's success in Spain.
Omnes ante Socratem philosophi,

all the philosophers before Socrates. Ex India elephanti, elephants from

:

India.

Let the following examples of the use of prepositions be
carefully observed and followed:-
AB.-Ab equitatu firmus, strong in cavalry.
AD.-Mihi ad forum negotium est, I have business in the market; ad
verbum ediscere, to learn word for word.
APUD.-Cœnam apud villam dat, he gives a dinner party at his villa.
DE.-Malus poeta de populo, a bad poet from among the people; de
genere summo adolescens, a youth of the highest promise; alterum
de duobus, one of two; metus de summâ rerum, fear for the general
safety.

E.-Mensæ Delphicæ e marmore, Delphic tablets of marble.
ERGA.-Merita Plancii erga me, Plancius's merit toward me.
Ex.-Ex adolescentiâ, from (since) the period of youth; diem ex die,
from day to day; vir ex doctrinâ clarus, a man renowned for learning;
signa ex ære, standards made of brass; soror ex matre, a sister on
the mother's side; ira ex hâc clade, anger arising from that defeat.
IN.-Bellum in Romanos, war against the Romans; imperium in His-
paniam, command over Spain; ter in anno, thrice a year; in aram
confugit, he fled to the altar; te invitavit in posterum diem, he
invited thee for the next day; in dies singulos, every day.
PER.-Si per me licuisset, if I had allowed; per deos te oro, I entreat
PREA.-Præ nobis beatus, happier than we.
thee by the gods.

PRÆTER.-Præter consuetudinem, beyond what is usual; præter spem
mora, unexpected delay.

PRO.-Pro curiâ, in front of the senate-house; pro dignitate laudare, to
praise conformably to dignity.

SUB.-Sub dio, in the open air; sub exitu anni, at the end of the year.
SUPER.-Vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; multa super Priamo
rogitans, asking many questions respecting Priam; super vinum et
epulas, at the banquet; nocte super medià, at midnight.
TENUS.-Verbo tenus, so far as the word was concerned.

which follow, you will readily see how conducive to a correct
If you diligently study these instances, and the exercises
knowledge of Latin is an exact and familiar acquaintance with
the import of its prepositions. You will also learn that the
primitive meaning of a preposition, as represented in English,
has occasionally to undergo considerable variations. The

manufactured in the country. Officers of Excise or Gaugers are the persons appointed to collect these duties.

EXECUTOR.-One who is appointed by a testator to see that his will is properly carried into effect after his decease.

EX OFFICIO.-A term denoting the power a person possesses by virtue of his office.

EX PARTE.-Two Latin words signifying in part; as an act, deed, or statement by one party only, without the participation of the other.

EXPORTS.-Goods sent out of a country.

INDENTURE.-A deed or agreement in writing, with special

covenants.

INDEMNITY.-Making good any loss or injury sustained. INDEX. An alphabetical list of the contents of a volume or account book.

INDORSE. To write on the back of a document. The person writing is the Indorser; the person to whom he transfers any right is the Indorsee; and what is written the Indorsation or Indorsement.

IN FORMA PAUPERIS (in the form (or condition) of a poor

FAC-SIMILE.-An exact copy of an original, with all its pecu-person).—A mode of bringing a suit to avoid the payment of

liarities.

FACTOR.-An old term for agent, still retained in certain trades, as corn-factor, fish-factor, etc.

FACTORY.-An establishment in which some branch of industry is carried on; also a place used by traders and agents (factors) for the negotiation of business.

FAILURE. The suspension of payments by traders.
FEE.-A compensation or reward for services rendered.
FIAT IN BANKRUPTCY.-The issue of judicial authority by
the Court for proceeding in any case.

FIERI FACIAS (or Fi. Fa.).—A judicial writ, after judgment is obtained for debt or damage, commanding the sum to be levied on the effects of the defendant.

FINANCE. The sevenue of a king or state. FINANCIER.-One who manages finance. FIRM.-A term applied to any trading establishment carried on by more than one person, or styled with more than one person's name.

FISCAL.-Relating to the revenue or pecuniary affairs of a

state.

FLOTSAM.-In marine insurance, goods floating on the surface of the waves-the term Jetsam being used when they are sunk under the surface of the water. Both appellations are distinctive from wrecked goods, which, to be considered such, must come to land.

FOLIO.-A leaf; two pages numbered alike and facing each other, one being allotted to the Dr. and the other to the Cr. side of an account.

FREE PORT.-A port where no import or export duties are levied.

FREE TRADE.-The freedom of buying and selling goods without such restrictions as duties, etc.

FREIGHT.-The sum paid for the transportation of merchandise forming the cargo of a ship, or for the hire of the whole or part of a ship.

fees.

INSOLVENT. A person whose resources are insufficient to meet the whole of his liabilities.

INSPECTORSHIP, DEED OF.-A deed by which a person unable to meet his engagements, places his affairs in the hands of his creditors, who carry them on until satisfied in whole or part, under the hands of trustees termed Inspectors.

INSURANCE is founded upon the principle of general combinations for the purpose of dividing and appropriating amongst the whole body any individual loss that may arise, each member contributing a small per-centage of his property to secure the rest-the contribution being in proportion to the risk to be incurred.

INTEREST.-The produce of employed capital, or the consideration due for the loan of capital at the expiration of the term for which it has been used. When money is lent with the stipulation that interest shall be regularly paid, yearly or halfyearly, and not be added to the principal as it accrues, it is termed simple interest; and when the stipulation is made that interest as it becomes due shall be added to and become part of the principal, it is termed compound interest, as the successive additions bear interest upon interest. Interest is also a term applied to any inherent or other right in, or benefit to be derived from property, business, or security.

INTEREST (SHORT).—In marine insurance, when the value of the goods shipped is short of the sum insured. A declaration of this sum being at once made on the policy, the insured are entitled to a proportionate return of premium. (See Open Policy.) IN TRANSITU. -Two Latin words signifying in course of transmission, or on the way.

INVESTMENT. In commerce, laying out money. Capital sunk or employed in any permanent way is said to be invested.

INVOICE. A mercantile term for the account, specifying the contents of each package of goods shipped, their cost, and the charges upon them; now generally applied to all specifica

FUNDS. The interminable annuities or funded portions of tions of goods sold in wholesale trades. the National Debt, sometimes called Stocks.

GARBLE.-The dross or refuse picked from spices, drugs, and other produce, in the process of garbling or sorting.

GARNISHMENT.-The notice in cases of attachment given to third parties, called garnishees, not to part with money or goods in their possession, pending the settlement of claims against the owners. (See Attachment.)

GAUGER. A Custom House officer appointed to examine the contents of hogsheads, barrels, etc., and to collect excise duties. GAZETTE.—The London Gazette. A publication issued under authority of the Government, containing all parliamentary, official, legal, and commercial notices.

GOODWILL.-The advantage accruing to any concern from an established trade or connection.

GROSS. The mass or bulk of anything.

GUARANTEE. The undertaking to perform or pay for another in case of his being unable to fulfil his engagements, or committing a fraud with regard to the matter guaranteed for. The person doing so is termed a Guarantor.

HAT MONEY.-See Primage.

HOME CONSUMPTION. An expression used for the ordinary trade demand for various commodities consumed in the country.

HONOURING.-Duly meeting claims or obligations. HOUSE. -A word almost synonymous in its meaning with firm, but occasionally applied as well to a concern carried on under the name of one person only.

HYPOTHECATION.-Giving a lien upon, or pledging documents conveying a right to, property in the hands of third parties. (See Collateral Security.)

IMPORTS.-Goods brought into the country.

I. O. U. (I owe you).-A memorandum acknowledging a debt. JERQUER. A Customs' officer, whose duty it is to search vessels on their arrival, for the purpose of ascertaining whether any unentered goods liable to duty are secreted, with a view to their clandestine introduction into the country. JETSAM. See Flotsam.

JETTISON.-The act of throwing overboard part of a ship's cargo, or cutting away masts, sails, etc., for the preservation of the rest of the cargo and ship. The owners of a ship or goods so jettisoned have recourse, by general average, upon the owners of the portion saved, who, in their turn, if they are insured, recover from the underwriters.

JOINT ADVENTURE.-A mercantile speculation in which more than one interest is concerned.

LESSONS IN FRENCH.—LXXVIII,

§ 94. INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES.

(1.) Quelque is written in three ways:

1. Followed by the verb être, it is written in two words, quel que; quel, which is an adjective, agrees in gender and number with the subject, and que, which is a conjunction, is invariable. In this case, the verb is used in the subjunctive, and its subject placed after it :

Frappez, Tyriens et même Israélites. RACINE. Leurs vertus et même leurs noms étaient ignorés.

BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE. Exempts de maux réels les hommes s'en forment même de chimériques.

Strike, Tyrians and Israelites also. Their virtues, as well as their names, were unknown.

(4.) In interrogative sentences the pronoun subject is placed immediately after the verb in the simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and the participle in the compound

Où suis-je ? qu'ai-je fait ? que Where am I? what have I done? dois-je faire encore ? what have I yet to do?

(5.) In interrogative sentences with verbs having only one syllable, in the first person singular of the indicative present,

and with some verbs having more than one syllable, the pronoun je is not placed after the verb. In such case the sentence is introduced by est-ce que, and the leading verb is used affirmatively :

:

§ 96.-REPETITION AND OMISSION OF THE Pronoun SUBJECT.

(1.) It is proper to repeat the personal pronouns subjects je, When exempt from real misfortu, il, elle, nous, vous, ils, elles, before every verb:tunes, men create to themselves (even) imaginary ones.

Je lis, j'écris, je me promène. | I read, write, and walk.

(2.) The omission of the pronouns je, tu, il, elle, nous, vous, ils, elles, before the second or third verb of a sentence, is a matter of choice, and subject to the following restrictions:These pronouns must be repeated:

1. When the first verb is in the negative and the second in the affirmative :

Je ne plie pas et je romps. I I do not bend and I break.

2. When the clauses are connected by conjunctions other than et, and; ou, or; ni, nor; mais, but:

(3.) Remark: But if the verb in these persons of the imperative is used negatively, the pronouns will be placed according to Rule (1.):

Ne les voyez pas, do not see them.

Si l'on vous propose de faire une mauvaise action, ne la faites

pas.

Dissipe tes douleurs,

Et ne me trouble pas par ces indignes pleurs. BOILEAU.

Ne leur parlez pas, do not speak

to them.

If they propose to you to commit a bad action, do it not.

(6.) The pronoun used as indirect object and governed by any preposition except à, is always, in French, placed after the preposition, which, of course, follows the verb :—

(7.) When two imperatives, used affirmatively, are joined together by the conjunction et, the pronoun object of the second may be placed before or after it :

After the Verb.

Sortez et laissez-moi dormir.
Go out, and let me sleep.
Marche, et suis-nous du moins
où l'honneur nous appelle.

BOILEAU.

March and follow us, at least, where honour calls us.

Cessez, vous dis-je, et laissez

moi,

Madame, exécuter les volontés du
roi.
RACINE.

Cease, I tell you, and suffer me,
Madam, to execute the commands of
the king.

Before the Verb.
Sortez et me laissez dormir.
Go out, and let me sleep.
Laissez-moi cette chaîne, ou
m'arrachez le jour. LA HARPE.

Leave me this chain, or deprive
me of life.
Vous attendez le roi; parlez et
lui montrez,
Contre le fils d'Hector tous les
Grecs conjurés. RACINE.
You expect the king; speak and
depict to him all the Greeks conspir-
ing against the son of Hector.

LESSONS IN ALGEBRA.-XXXIV.
ADFECTED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS (continued).
FROM the principles that have been laid down in the preceding
lesson we may also deduce

OTHER METHODS OF COMPLETING THE SQUARE.

Multiply the equation by 16 times the co-efficient of the highest Dissipate thy grief, and trouble me power of the unknown quantity, and add to both sides 4 times not by these unworthy tears. the square of the co-efficient of the lowest power.

And universally, multiplying the equation by the product of any square number, as n2, into the co-efficient of the highest

(4.) 2nd Exception:* With all reflective verbs; with idio-power, and adding to both sides the square of half the root of matic verbal expressions consisting of a verb and a noun; when this number into the square of the co-efficient of the lowest power, the verb is accompanied by ne que; for the sake of em-will render it a complete square. phasis in elevated style; also with the following verbs :