thing which can, with any confidence, be advanced on the subject.

Illus. 1. Pronouns have no other use in language, but to represent nouns; and, of course, they are commonly called to occupy the stations of the nouns they represent. They should, therefore, be marshalled agreeably to the stations in which their principals would appear. (VI. p. 68, and Art. 71.)

2. The chief office of prepositions is, to denote the relations of substantives to one another; they are, therefore, placed generally between the related objects, immediately before the one that bears the relation, and as near as possible to the other, to which the relation is borne. "A man of virtue." "Success to industry." "Genius with

judgment."

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3. Participles, in general, assume the situation of adjectives, of the nature of which they very much partake; but they are also employed frequently to introduce clauses dependent on preceding verbs. "A loving father." "A learned man." "He passed through life, adored by his friends, and respected by all good men.” (Illus. 2. Art. 59.) 4. Conjunctions are often introduced to connect single substantives, but more commonly to conjoin clauses of sentences. From their nature they require a situation between the things of which they form a union. (Art. 72.)

5. The interjection, finally, in a grammatical sense, is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence. Its arrangement, of course, is altogether arbitrary, and cannot admit of any theory. (Art. 73.)

6. If two adverbs attend upon a single verb, one significant of place or time, the other of some modification of the verb, the former is generally situated before the verb, the latter, more intimately connected with the verb, is placed immediately after it, to the exclusion even of the subject, when some circumstance depends upon the subject. "Casar often reprehended severely the ingratitude of his enemies." "He every where declared publicly his inclination to preserve the constitution of his country." (Art. 70.)

..

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7. If one auxiliary attend a verb, along with one adverb, the adverb is generally placed between the auxiliary and the verb. Folly has always exposed her author." "Wealth may often make friends, but can never produce true peace of mind."

8. If there be two auxiliaries, the adverb is commonly situated between them. "He should certainly have come." "He might easily have known." In passive sentences, however, the adverb is placed after both the auxiliaries; as, "He will be uncommonly agitated.' shall be completely ruined." (Art. 70. Illus. 5.)

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9. If there be three auxiliaries, when the sentence must again be passive, the adverb is placed after them all. "I might have been better informed." "He might have been completely educated in that branch of science." "It should have been well authenticated."

"He car

10. If two adverbs, with two auxiliaries, attend upon the same verb, the adverbs will be intermixed with the auxiliaries. "I have always been much embarrassed by these inconveniences." ever be sincerely disposed to promote peace." "He might at least have plainly told him."

11. In the arrangement of two or more prepositions, the relation of concomitance seems to be the most intimate, and, therefore, takes the

66

precedency of all others. He went with him to France; he came with him from Rome; he lived with him at Naples, and fought with him in Flanders; he contended with him for fame, but fought with him against his enemies." The relation denoted by from, precedes that signified by_to. "He came from Rome to Paris, and from Paris to London." "From a beginning very unpromising, he rose to great influence and wealth." "Society proceeds from barbarity to refinement, from ignorance to knowledge, from wealth to corruption, and from corruption to ruin."

Scholium. These principles are supported by the practice of our purest writers. It is our duty, therefore, to form our style on the most correct models before us, if we would avoid that fluctuating and unsettled imitation which is observable, when the ear is our chief guide, and its dictates are always variable, not seldom whimsical. In a matter of so much consequence, we may, it seems, follow with most confidence the example of the best writers and speakers, explained and sup ported by the analogies of grammar and of perspicuity. (Art. 80.)

CHAPTER III.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

146. THOUGH PERSPICUITY be the general head under which we are at present considering language, we shall not confine ourselves to this quality alone, in sentences, but inquire, also, what is requisite for their grace and beauty.

Obs. Aristotle defines a sentence to be a form of speech which hath a beginning and an end within itself, and is of such a length as to be easily comprehended at once.* This, however, admits of a great latitude. For a sentence, or period, consists always of component parts, which are called its members; and as these members may be either few or many, and may be connected in several different ways, the same thought, or mental proposition, may often be either brought into one sentence, or split into two or three, without the material breach of any rule. (Art. 141. and 142.)

147. The first variety that occurs in the consideration of sentences is, the distinction of long and short ones. The precise length of sentences, as to the number of words, or the number of members, which may enter into them, cannot be ascertained by any definite measure. At the same time, it is obvious, that there may be an extreme on either side.

Ilius. Sentences, immoderately long, and consisting of too many members, always transgress some one or other of the rules which are necessary to be observed in every good sentence. In discourses that

* Δεξις έχυσα αρχην και τελευτην καθ' αυτην, και μέγεθος ευσύνοπτον.

are to be spoken, regard must be had to the easiness of pronunciation, which is not consistent with too long periods. In compositions where pronunciation has no place, still, however, by using long periods toc frequently, an author overloads and fatigues the reader's attention. For long periods require, evidently, more attention than short ones, in order to perceive clearly the connexion of the several parts, and to take in the whole at one view. At the same time, in too many short sentences, also, there may be an excess, by which the sense is split and broken, the connexion of thought weakened, and the memory burdened, by presenting to it a long succession of minute objects. (Obs. 2. Art. 148.)

Corol. According to the nature of the composition, therefore, and the general character it ought to bear, the one or other may be predominant. But, in almost every kind of composition, the great rule is to intermix them. For the attention tires of either of them when too long continued: whereas, it is gratified by a proper mixture of long and short periods, in which a certain sprightliness is joined with majesty of style. "It is not proper always to employ a continued train, and a sort of regular compass of phrases; but style ought to be often broken down into smaller members."*

143. This variety is of so great consequence, that it must be studied, not only in the succession of long and short sentences, but in the structure of either species of these sen

tences.

Illus. 1. A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, whether long or short, should never be allowed to succeed one another. However musical each of them may be to a reader, it has a better effect to introduce even a discord, than to cloy. the ear with a repetition of similar sounds: for nothing is 80 tiresome as perpetual uniformity. (Art. 116. Illus. 1, 2. Criť. I. and II.)

149. The properties most essential to a perfect sentence seem to be the four following: 1. Clearness and precision. 2. Unity. 3. Strength. 4. Harmony. Each of these we shall illustrate separately, and at some length.

Illus. The least failure in clearness and precision, which we consider the first essential properties to a perfect sentence, the least degree of ambiguity, which leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to the meaning, ought to be avoided with the greatest care; nor is it so easy a matter to keep always clear of this, as one might, at first, imagine. Precision has already been considered; we shall here consider ambiguity as it arises either from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong collocation of them. In Chapter IV. this subject will be handled in its most extensive signification.

Corol. Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that the words or members most nearly related should be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possible; so as to make their mutual relation clearly appear. This is a rule not always observed as strictly as it ought to be, even by good writers. It will be necessary to produce

"Non semper utendum est perpetuitate, et quasi conversione verborum; sed epe carpenda membris minutioribus oratio est." Cicero

9

some instances, which will both shew the importance of this rule, and make the application of it understood. (Art. 121.)

150. First, In the position of adverbs, which are used to qualify the signification of something that either precedes or follows them, there is often a good deal of nicety. (Art. 121. and Illus.)

Illus. 66 The Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we.' These words are capable of two different senses, according as the em phasis, in reading them, is laid upon liberty, or upon at least. In the first case, they will signify, that whatever other things we may understand better than the Romans, liberty, at least, was one thing which they understood as well as we. In the second case, they will import, that liberty was understood at least as well by them as by us; meaning, that by them it was better understood. If this last, as I make no doubt, was Dean Swift's own meaning, the ambiguity would have been avoided, and the sense rendered independent of the manner of pronouncing, by arranging the words thus: "The Romans understood liberty, as well, at least, as we.' (Art. 70. Illus. 5.)

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Corol. With respect, then, to such adverbs as only, wholly, at least, and the rest of that tribe, which we use in common discourse, the tone and emphasis with which we pronounce them generally serve to show their reference, and to make their meaning clear; and hence we ac quire a habit of throwing them in loosely in the course of a period. But, in writing, where a man speaks to the eye, and not to the ear, he ought to be more accurate; and so to connect those adverbs with the words which they qualify, as to put his meaning out of doubt upon the first inspection. (Illus. 11. Art. 124.)

151. Secondly, When a circumstance is interposed in the middle of a sentence, it sometimes requires attention how to place it, so as to divest it of all ambiguity.

Illus. "Are these designs, which any man, who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Here we are left at a loss, whether these words, "in any circumstances, in any situation," are connected with "a man born a Briton, in any circumstances, or situation," or with that man's "avowing his designs, in any circumstances, or situation, into which he may be brought." If the latter, as seems most probable, was in tended to be the meaning, the arrangement ought to have been conducted thus: "Are these designs, which any man, who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow in any circumstances, in any situation?" But,

152. Thirdly, Still more attention is required to the proper disposition of the relative pronouns, who, which, what, whose, and of all those particles which express the connexion of the parts of speech with one another. As all reasoning depends upon this connexion, we cannot here be too accurate and precise. A small error may overcloud the *Swift's Project for the Advancement of Religion. † Bolingbroke's Dissert on Parties.

meaning of the whole sentence; and even where the meaning is intelligible, if these relative particles be out of their proper place, we always find something awkward and disjointed in the structure of the sentence.

Illus. 1. "This kind of wit was very much in vogue among our countrymen, about an age or two ago, who did not practise it for any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being witty." We are at no loss about the meaning here; but the construction would evidently be mended by disposing of the circumstance," about an age or two ago," in such a manner as not to separate the relative who from its antecedent our countrymen. Thus," about an age or two ago, this kind of wit was very much in vogue among our countrymen, who did not practise it for any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being witty."

2. Of the like nature is the following inaccuracy of Dean Swift. He is recommending to young clergymen to write their sermons fully and distinctly. "Many," says he, "act so directly contrary to this method, that from a habit of saving time and paper, which they acquired at the university, they write in so diminutive a manner, that they can hardly read what they have written." He certainly does not mean, that they had acquired time and paper at the university, but that they had acquired this habit of saving both time and paper there; and therefore his words ought to have run thus: "From a habit which they have acquired at the university of saving time and paper, they write in so diminutive a manner."

Scholia. Several other instances might be given; but those which we have produced may be sufficient to make the rule understood.

I. Namely, that in the construction of sentences, one of the first things to be attended to, is, the marshalling of the words, in such order as shall most clearly mark the relation of the several parts of the sentence to one another.

Particularly, that adverbs shall always be made to adhere closely to the words which they are intended to qualify.

II. That, where a circumstance is thrown in, it shall never hang loose in the midst of a period, but be determined by its place to one or other of the members in that period.

III. And that every relative word which is used, shall instantly present its antecedent to the mind of the reader, without the least obscurity.

In these three cases are contained some of the most frequent occasions of ambiguity creeping into sentences. (But see Chapters IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, of this book.)

153. With regard to relatives, we must farther observe, that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns who, and they, and them, and theirs, when we have occasion to refer to different persons.

Illus. 1. "Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others; and think that their reputation obscures them, and their com mendable qualities stand in their light; and therefore they do what

*Spectator, No. 54.