PREFACE. THE object of this volume is not the construction of a system of Moral Philosophy. It is very far from attempting either an exhaustive or a systematic treatment of ethical questions. Nor is the Author so much as prepared to define the sphere of Moral Philosophy, to say what does fall within it and what does not. The writer's object in this work has been mainly critical. He sees that ethical theories rest in the end on preconceptions metaphysical and psychological. He believes that many of the fundamental ideas now current, especially in England, are confused or even false; and he has endeavoured, by the correction of some of these, at least to remove what seem obstacles to the apprehension of moral facts. These Essays are a critical discussion of some leading questions in Ethics, and are so far connected that, for the most part, they must be read in the order in which they stand. The writer knows how much is demanded by his task. It demands an acquaintance with the facts of the world which he does not possess; and it demands that clearness of view on the main conceptions which govern our thoughts, which comes, if at all, to the finished student of metaphysic. The reader must not expect this either. These Essays may be dogmatic and one-sided. They were produced and are published because the writer knows no English moral philosophy which does not, rightly or wrongly, seem to him to be at least as one-sided and even more dogmatic. Whatever they may be, if they bring any fresh element to the chaos of our philosophical literature they will be of use to the student. But the ideas brought forward in these pages are not new. The source of every argument might in most cases have been given, and the reader referred to the works of one or two great men; and it is because the substance of the whole is not original that the writer has made scarcely any acknowledgments in detail. He has come forward not because what he has to say is new, but because our literature compels the belief that to the larger part of our philosophical public, and even of our philosophers, a great deal of it must be both novel and necessary. This must be his excuse if the polemical part of his work (and too much is polemical) appears anywhere wanting in respect towards authors of repute and merit. But he thinks that he has nowhere overstepped the fair limits of controversy, a controversy into which he never would have ventured, were it not too much the fashion to take no account of views which are now more than half a century old, and the neglect of which he is convinced has done much to preclude the possibility of a solution. CONTENTS. PAGE Object of the inquiry (1-3). The common notion of Responsibility (3-8); irreconcileable with Freedom (8-12), and with rational prediction (13-17) Ground of the objection to rational prediction (17-22). Common opinion and Necessitarianism (22-24). Irreconcile- able as to Punishment and Responsibility (24-30). Reason of this twofold (30-37). Note A. Compulsion and Responsibility (139). Note B. Character how far Question rests on a doginatic preconception (53-56); which is opposed to the moral consciousness (56-57); and is unreasonable (58-59). The End is self realization (59); as is shown from morality (60); and from psychological considerations (61-62). It means realizing self as Happiness a vague phrase (78-79). Common opinion on pleasure (79-80). concileable with morality (81-85). Illusory nature of the Hedonistic end (86-89). My pleasure as the end gives no rule of life (90-94). And the pleasure of all is illusory (94-95); opposed to morality (96); and gives no practical guidance (96-101); it is dogma. tically postulated (101-103); and irreconcileable with Hedonistic psychology (103-105). Further modifications of Hedonism. Qualitative distinction of pleasures is, in both its forms, untenable (106-111) Further criticism on Mill's view (111-112). Results (13-114). The end is the Good Will (128-129). This is the universal form (130-131). What 'ought' means (131-132). Principle of non-contradiction (133). This contradicts itself (134-136). Duty and duties (137-138). Psychological objection (138-139). Practical uselessness of non-contradiction (139-141). Collision of duties unavoidable (141-143). Present result (145-146). Advance to a higher point of view (146-148). Individualism criti- cized (148-156). The end is realization as member of a community (157). The moral organism seems to be the solution of ethical problems (158-156). Satisfactoriness of this view (166-171). Relative and absolute morality (171-174). Intuitive character of moral judgments (174-180). Morality not a mere private matter (180-183). Criticism of the No limit to the moral sphere (193-197). Content of the ideal self (198-203). Collisions of moral elements (203-206). Morality not simply equal to self-realization (206). What it is (206-212). Difficulties as to its nature (212-220). In what sense is it approximative? (220-225). Statement and refutation of the argument for general selfishness, which is founded on the confusion as to 'motive' (227-235). What is the idea of a pleasure? (236). Psychological genesis of the voluptuary (237-245). What selfishness is (245-247, General problem of the good and bad self (247-248). Hereditary theory insufficient (249). Content of good and bad selves (250). Genesis of the good self (251-261). Genesis of the bad self (261-265). Origin of morality proper (265-271). Nature of the morally good and bad ETHICAL STUDIES. ESSAY I THE VULGAR NOTION OF ResponsibilitY IN CONNECTION WITH THE THEORIES OF FREE-WILL AND NECESSITY. WHAT HAT is not the scope of this essay? We must begin with that, for round the phrases which appear in our title there exist 'perverse associations,' which may lead our readers to expect, some this, and others that. And, because we think that some of these expectations will be disappointed, we will start with saying what it is that we do not propose to treat of. The scope of this essay might have been the solution of one, or both, of two difficult problems, We might have asked what responsibility at bottom is; whether it implies necessity or freedom, and what these mean; and then we should have come to questions of abstract metaphysic. Or again, our task might have been the limitation of our accountability with reference to legal imputation, and here we should have had a juridical enquiry. But our object is not the solution of either one or the other of these questions. What then is the end which we do set before us? It is a threefold undertaking: to ascertain first, if possible, what it is that, roughly and in general, the vulgar mean when they talk of being responsible; to ask, in the second place, whether either of the doctrines of Freedom and Necessity (as current among ourselves) agree with their notions; and, in case they do not agree, B |