tion of able historical works. A wise and judicious scepticism is in fact the prime qualification in a historian who has to weigh conflicting statements, and single out from them that which is most probable, to determine when and how far a document is credible, to distinguish what an authority has advanced upon sufficient evidence, and what has been coloured in accordance with the views of religion and party. The general spirit of the eighteenth century was eminently fitted to promote the growth of this important qualification, and to this period accordingly our greatest historians belong; for whatever may be their defects, no subsequent writers can be preferred to Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Their works have a completeness as wholes, which is wanting in those of their successors. Their style, with individual peculiarities, is admirably suited to history; simple and perspicuous, with sufficient dignity to keep it from being low or familiar, and sufficient ornament to keep it from being flat or monotonous. Their narrative is a happy medium between prolixity and excessive brevity; full enough to prevent all obscurity, and yet unincumbered by the introduction of extraneous and subordinate matters, which are better discussed in notes. Hume, the earliest of the three, is also much the simplest in his style, which, for all the purposes of history, has never been excelled. He has been frequently accused of inaccuracy and carelessness, and it is evident that his ignorance of English law has led him into several errors, and he was at all times more anxious to remove defects in style than to correct errors in fact. His political leanings are too obviously exhibited to mislead any one; and it can hardly be doubted that in accusing Hume of dishonesty, critics have often been led to exaggerate his faults through hatred of his politics. Robertson is inferior to Hume in simplicity, and his style is occasionally faulty; but his narrative is at all times highly interesting, and his philosophical views are characterized by great truth and profoundness. His works are the result of careful and extensive research, and though objection has sometimes been taken to some of his statements, subsequent investigations have satisfactorily shown that he judged with great impartiality on the evidence he possessed. Gibbon wrote in a much more dignified and ornate style than his two predecessors, yet not too much so considering the greater grandeur of his subject. The almost boundless range of his knowledge is better appreciated now than it was in his own day; and the masterly ability with which he has grappled with and overcome the difficulties of a subject which no other historian could have undertaken, has quite superseded all necessity of further labour on the same field. His indirect attack upon Christianity must ever be regretted as the great blot upon his Decline and Fall," while, like every other attack on the truth, it has only served to point out to Christian divines that point in the line of their defences which was most vulnerable, and to rouse all their energies in defence of their faith. Besides the three historians now named, others of less note flourished in this period. Of these the earliest was Echard, whose "History of England" was the best in our language till it was superseded by that of Hume. Bishop Kennet was in part the author of a work on the same subject, and a valuable collection of materials in illustration of our history was accumulated by Carte, a non-juring clergyman. The "History of the Reign of

Henry II." was written by Lord Lyttleton, and that of "Great Britain" till the time of Henry VIII. was composed with considerable ability by Dr Henry, a clergyman in Edinburgh. The "Roman History" of Hooke was a good performance for its time, though, of course, since the days of Niebuhr it has been forgotten. In the time of George II., a ponderous "Universal History" was issued, the work of numerous hands, of whom Bower, Guthrie, and Campbell are tolerably well known by other publications of a similar nature. A continuation of “Hume's History," but in a very inferior style, was written by Smollett the novelist; Goldsmith wrote several small histories, which, though possessing no other merit than their pleasing, easy style, have, such is the virtue of a graceful style, continued to be used as school-books ever since. Russell's " History of Modern Europe" is still a well-known and useful compilation; and the "History of the Roman Republic" by Ferguson, and of "Greece" by Dr Gillies, though now superseded, were also ably-written works. The 'History of Music" by Dr Burney, and of "Poetry" by Warton; various biographical works by Birch, Echard, Campbell, and others works on antiquities by Potter and Kennet; the "Annual Register begun by Dodsley, and its opponent the "New Annual Register," are all entitled to a place in the historical literature of the century, and many of them are still valuable to the student.

7. The theological literature of the period is rich and varied, and still retains much of its value. On it, as on all other departments of literature, the genius of the age exercised a most important influence. There was almost a general consent among the wits and authors of the day to attack Christianity on all points; the credibility of the Christian evidences was called in question; it was even maintained by writers of no mean note that it was impossible to establish the truth of the Christian doctrines by any amount of evidence; and the whole system of the Christian faith was ridiculed as contrary to human reason, as unworthy of its alleged divine origin, and opposed to all the ordinary principles of divine operation in the natural world. These attacks called forth a voluminous and varied literature on the part of the advocates of Christianity, which is still valuable to the theological student, though the better feeling towards religion which happily prevails in the present age has rendered it less necessary for the general reader to peruse such works. On everything connected with natural theology and the external evidences of Christianity, the theological literature of the eighteenth century, which may be considered as beginning with Tillotson and ending with Paley, is by far the best which we yet possess. Besides the main controversy with the sceptical spirit of the age, two subordinate discussions were carried on within the Church. The one, referring to the mysterious doctrines of the Trinity, was excited by a publication of Dr Samuel Clarke's, the principal combatants being Clarke and Waterland, and was afterwards revived and carried on with great vigour between Horsley, Priestley, and Wakefield. The other, on the extent of Church authority, excited by a sermon of Dr Hoadley, Bishop of Bangor, was known in consequence as the Bangorian Controversy, and caused much and long-continued animosity, from its ranking against each other the two great parties of the Church, the High and the Low, as well as the two

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233 great parties of the State, the Whigs and the Tories. In defence of religion against Atheism, the earliest writer was Leslie, an Irish nonjuror, whose "Short and Easy Method with the Deists," though limited in dimensions, is not excelled in argumentative ability by any of the works which appeared during the controversy. Still more famous at the time were the Lectures of Dr Samuel Clarke on the Being and Attributes of God," in which he endeavoured to establish the Divine existence and perfections by what is usually known as the à priori argument. The soundness of this argument is now very generally denied; it is impossible, however, not to admire the ability with which it is urged; while it proved of great service at the time by confounding the sceptics with metaphysical subtleties to which they could make no satisfactory reply. A "Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of Scripture," by Bishop Lowth, is characterized by the usual learning of that eminent prelate; and Bishop Berkeley, in his "Minute Philosopher," has refuted with great ability and soundness many of the arguments which were most customarily adduced by the Freethinkers of the time against revealed religion. The best-known, however, of the works of this period is the "Analogy" of Bishop Butler, in which he shows that the same objections which had been made against natural and revealed religion could be made with equal force against God's ordinary government of the world, and that consequently a Deist who admitted God to be the author and ruler of the external world, could not consistently deny the truth of the principles of religion. His work is written in a cumbrous style, totally destitute of all the graces of composition, and the high popularity which it has always enjoyed and still retains is therefore the strongest proof that could be given of its great merit. Equally solid and more learned, though not at present so highly esteemed, are the Discourses of Dr Jortin on the "Truth of the Christian Revelation." The "History" of Gibbon called forth a host of opponents eager to defend Christianity against his attacks; few of them, however, were qualified for the task, and the "Apology for Christianity" of Bishop Watson is the only one now remembered. The Dissenters on their part were not wanting in defence of the common religion, one of the most laborious, learned, and useful works which appeared during the century being produced by Dr Lardner, minister of a dissenting chapel in London. His "Credibility of the Gospel History" has, indeed, from want of skill in composition, and its formidable dimensions (it extends to fifteen volumes), never enjoyed any great share of popularity, but it affords an inexhaustible supply of admirable materials, which, in the hands of more expert workmen such as Paley, have been of great service to the cause of Christian truth. Leland's "View of the principal Deistical Writers" is a work still highly prized for its ability; and the "Dissertation on Miracles" by Farmer is considered by some judges the best refutation that we possess of the sceptical views by which Hume endeavoured to deprive religion of one of its strongest evidences. The efforts of the clergy in defence of the faith were also ably seconded by the pen of Addison, and still more by the noble energy of Johnson, whose superiority of character and vast literary influence contributed much to infuse a healthier tone in speaking of religious matters; and doubtless the sarcasm of Swift on

the same subject was not spent in vain. The miscellaneous theological literature of the age is not so valuable as that which has been already noticed; still it embraces many works of merit. Bishop Warburton's "Divine Legation of Moses" is, in point of erudition, inferior to no work in the English language; but, besides the extreme arrogance and dogmatism which disfigure it, it is now generally admitted that the author was mistaken in the views which he sought to defend. Lowth's "Lectures on Hebrew Poetry" are still admired; and the Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the early Christians by Middleton, and the "Remarks on Ecclesiastical History" of Jortin, though perhaps a little too sceptical, were yet of great service in inducing the clergy to inquire with more care and discrimination into the ecclesiastical history of the early centuries. Law's "Serious Call" is a well-known work; and Hervey's "Meditations among the Tombs," though full of false rhetoric, is still held in considerable esteem. Among the Dissenters, the names and writings of Watts, Doddridge, Booth, and Guyse, are those most familiar to the men of the present generation. The revival of religious feeling, and the rise of the Methodists by the labours of Wesley and Whitefield, led to the production of a new style of theological literature, in which it would be difficult to praise anything beyond the zeal which is displayed. Scotland makes a highly-respectable contribution to the theology of the century. Boston's "Fourfold State," though its theology is of the narrowest kind, is an able and vigorous work, the production of a masculine mind; the Sermons of Logan, and still more of Blair, acquired a reputation such as no Scotch theological work had ever before possessed; the "Essay on Miracles," by Dr Campbell of Aberdeen, was an able reply to the objections made by Hume against the credibility of the gospel miracles; and the learning of Macknight was highly creditable to his country.

8. To this period we owe the origin of the Novel. The merit of devising a form of composition that is now so important a part of our literature belongs to Daniel Defoe; and, though the earliest of our novelists, his merits have in some respects not been surpassed by any succeeding writer. Such was his power of producing, by the circumstantiality of his narrative, and its air of perfect truth, an irresistible conviction of the reality of what he describes, that many of his novels were long believed to be genuine histories,- -a belief which is perhaps not yet quite extinct. His best work, "Robinson Crusoe," is too well known to need any description; he wrote also a "History of the Plague," "Memoirs of a Cavalier," "Moll Flanders," " Colonel Jack," and other works, all distinguished by the same characteristic features, many of them, however, highly objectionable in a moral point of view. The next great novelist was Richardson, an imitator of Defoe, happily with a higher moral aim. His "Pamela," "Clarissa Harlowe," and "Sir Charles Grandison," are somewhat too long for modern taste, and somewhat deficient in action; but his powerful delineation of all that affects the passions seldom fails to entrance his reader. Great as were the improvements introduced into the novel by Richardson, a still further advance was made under his contemporary Fielding. Possessed of singular ability in the delineation of character and manners, great power of observa

tion, a happy satirical vein, eminent skill in concocting his plots, and inexhaustible invention in diversifying his incidents, Fielding is the father of the novel in its modern character, and the great model whom most of our modern novelists have endeavoured to imitate. Unfortunately it is impossible not to condemn the loose morals of his works; but Fielding was a rake, and his writings contain only too faithful a picture of the profligacy which brought their author to poverty, disgrace, and an untimely grave. Still more licentious are the novels of Smollett, Fielding's great rival, who, with less skill in the construction of his plots, and inferior judgment in the introduction of his incidents, possessed a broader humour, which makes his works more fascinating, and therefore more likely to exert their evil influence on the unwary reader. Sterne, the other great novelist of the period, owed much of his early popularity to the extreme eccentricity of his style. His "Tristram Shandy" is at one time grossly licentious, and immediately afterwards so tender and pathetic as to melt the most obdurate reader. Passages containing keen sarcastic remarks upon the follies and the foibles of mankind, alternate with others that are full of mere talk and nonsense. An exquisite tale is narrated with consummate skill; but when the interest is at its height, the author capriciously darts off to some totally different subject, interpolates half-a-dozen impertinent episodes, and finishes, perhaps, with a chapter consisting wholly of blank paper and asterisks. The effect of this style gradually wore off, and his fame declined as the public came accustomed to his vagaries; but Sterne, as a humorist, still holds a very high rank in our literature. Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield" though very faulty in its composition, is perhaps the most pleasing tale in the language, and enjoys a reputation on which time is not likely to have any influence. Johnson's "Rasselas" is an able tale, and produces a deep impression on the reader, but partakes too much of the gloomy views of human nature, in which the worthy moralist was apt to indulge. Brooke's "Fool of Quality," after a temporary oblivion, has been again revived and reintroduced as a claimant for public favour; and Mackenzie's "Man of Feeling" and "Man of the World," though deficient as pictures of human life, are able and wellwritten works. The old romances were again revived by Horace Walpole in his "Castle of Otranto," which, as well as "The Old English Baron" by Mrs Reeve, are well known to the juvenile part of the community. Towards the end of the century the novel sadly degenerated; but able works were still produced by Miss Burney, Miss Charlotte Smith, and Dr Moore.

9. Philosophy has been defined to be "the art of doubting well;" and a century universally abandoned to doubting, as the eighteenth was, very naturally produced some of the most famous systems of mental and moral philosophy. The nature of our knowledge of the external world has always been one of the grand subjects of dispute in metaphysics, and on this various theories were maintained during the period now under notice. Bishop Berkeley held that the properties of bodies, such as hardness, were not qualities in the bodies themselves, but ideas in our minds; and from this doctrine, which its author intended as a proof of the omnipresence of the Deity, sceptical writers drew the conclusion that we had no reason to believe in the