beyond the slow but increased spread of education, it for some time induced little change amongst mankind. The discovery of the electric telegraph astonished the public, and introduced a new facility of communication; but with the exception of those engaged in the actual working, the people at large did not concern themselves much about its details. With the introduction of photography the case has been far different. Men of all tastes, habits, and stations seemed smitten as with a mania, but which, unlike older manias, such as the Dutch tulip rage, did not die out in a short time, but has rather gone on increasing. Never was a taste so catholic as that which has united in the bonds of brotherhood the disciples of this new iconolatry. Several priests of the Church of Rome have been amongst the most active contributors to the progress of the new art-science. An archbishop of the English Church is one of its zealous devotees. Clergymen of the English Church, and ministers of dissenting congregations are numerous amongst its adherents. The army, from the general to the private, furnishes recruits. Doctors, lawyers, and scientific and literary men are prominent in its pursuit. The senior wrangler of last year is an accomplished photographer. Every trade, no matter how lowly, every profession, no matter how engrossing, is compelled to afford some leisure to the earnest amateur in photography. Even royalty has not disdained to yield to the fascinations which surround the camera, and dark rooms are found attached to more than one royal palace. Societies have started into existence to discuss the processes, and aid each other in the practice of the new art. The Photographic Society of London, with the sovereign of the realm for its patron, the ex-Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer for its president, and noblemen, artists, and men of science for its council, has a roll of nearly four hundred members, including every grade in society. A dozen other local societies with similar aim are scattered throughout the country. Similar associations are spread over continental Europe and America, and in all these the professional photographer and the amateur, the artist whose aim is to produce pictures, and the devotee of science, whose only object is to penetrate the arcana of nature, vie with each other in the ardour with which they pursue the several branches which photography opens to them. wealthy amateur, to whom an hour's exertion was scarcely before known, will toil in the burning sun up mountain steeps, in close tents, or improvised dark rooms, with an energy and an ardour unknown to him who lives by the sweat of his brow. Failure and disaster, capricious silver baths, tormenting collodion, irritating chemicals of every kind only stimulate him to renewed The Economic Aspects of Photography. 389 exertion; and his devotion to his art-mistress often seems increased in proportion as she tantalises him, now with the hope of success, and then with the despair of blank failure. The whole social history of the art is an enigma without a parallel. Besides its influence on the literature, as well as the social life of the day, photography has a literature of its own, which is perhaps sui generis in its history and character. In this country there are two weekly magazines devoted to the art-one issued in the metropolis, and another representing provincial interests. There are also a monthly and a fortnightly serial, besides certain annuals. America issues three photographic periodicals; France two, solely devoted to the art, and others more or less interested in it. India, Italy, Spain, Prussia, Austria, Holland, Russia, each has its specific photographic serial. Many of these are conducted by men of high rank in science and letters; they are distinguished by a technology of their own, created by the growth of the art-science, to the interests of which, in its theoretical, practical, artistic, and social aspects, they are devoted. But The rapid growth of new and special industries is a fact so characteristic of the present day, that the statistics of photography can scarcely be regarded as wonderful, viewed merely as a question of economics. Nevertheless, some of the facts are sufficiently startling. Twenty years ago one person claimed the sole right to practise photography professionally in this country. According to the census of 1861, the number of persons. who entered their names as photographers was 2,534. There is reason, however, to believe that these figures fall short of the real number; since then it is probable the number has been doubled or trebled, and that including those collaterally associated with the art it is even four or five times that number. these figures fall far short of the number interested in photography as amateurs. We are informed that eight years ago, in establishing a periodical which has since become the leading photographic journal, a large publishing firm sent out 25,000 circulars-not sown broadcast, but specially addressed to persons known to be interested in the new art-science. The number of professional photographers in the United States is said to be over 15,000, and a proportionate number may with propriety be estimated as spread over continental Europe and other parts of the civilized globe. But a more curious estimate of the ramifications of this industry may be formed by a glance at the consumption of some of the materials employed. A single firm in London consumes, on an average, the whites of 2,000 eggs daily in the manufacture of albumenized paper for photographic printing, amounting to 600,000 annually. As it may be fairly assumed that this is but a tenth of the total amount consumed in this country, we obtain an average of six millions of inchoate fowls sacrificed annually in this new worship of the sun in the United Kingdom alone! When to this is added the far larger consumption of Europe and America, which we do not attempt to put in figures, the imagination is startled by the enormous total inevitably presented for its realization. In the absence of exact data, we hesitate to estimate the consumption of the precious metals, the mountains of silver and monuments of gold, which follow as matters of necessity. A calculation based on facts enables us to state, however, that for every twenty thousand eggs employed, nearly one hundredweight of nitrate of silver is consumed. We arrive thus at an estimate of 300 hundredweight of nitrate of silver annually used in this country alone in the production of photographs. To descend to individual facts more easily grasped, we learn that the consumption of materials in the photographs of the International Exhibition of 1862, produced by Mr. England for the London Stereoscopic Company, amounted to 2,400 ounces of nitrate of silver, nearly 54 ounces of terchloride of gold, 200 gallons of albumen, amounting to the whites of 32,000 eggs, and 70 reams of paper; the issue of pic tures approaching to nearly a million, the number of stereoscopic prints amounting to nearly 800,000 copies. We have already glanced at the statistics of the card portraiture of public men. Some estimate may easily be formed of the industries stimulated or created by the circulation of these and other photographs in cases, frames, fittings, and apparatus of various kinds. house alone, and by no means the largest among manufacturers, has issued little short of a million of albums for the card pictures. Stereoscopic pictures have had a circulation only less than that of the portrait cards, and these as certainly involve stereoscopes as cards involve albums. Accurate figures as the exact extent of the various branches of manufacture, arising solely out of photography, cannot, of course, be obtained; but the facts already named are sufficiently suggestive. One Our review of photography as art, science, and commerce, has already extended beyond the limits we had prescribed for it, notwithstanding that we have only stated the leading facts of its history and applications with the utmost brevity compatible with completeness. Whether its future progress will bear any relation to that which has characterized the first quarter of a century of its existence we do not conjecture; but it is clear that this youngest born of the arts is destined to play an important part in the progress of that civilization which will prevail in the fulness of time. ART. III.. -Notes on the Battle of Waterloo. By the late Sir JAMES S. KENNEDY, K.C.B. London: Murray 1865. THE author of this small but valuable work says truly, that the campaign of Waterloo will be always a matter of interesting enquiry. The settlement of Europe which resulted from it, has indeed gradually yielded to time; Imperial France, Emancipated Italy, Constitutional Belgium, the Crimean war, a United Germany, and a vast shifting of continental alliances, show that its effects have not been permanent; but it closed a long era of revolutions, and set lasting bounds to a colossal despotism. Moreover, in a military point of view, it suggests perhaps more important problems than any contest recorded in history; it confronted, and placed in terrible antagonism the greatest military reputations which modern times, at least, have beheld; and, having opened with fair prospects to the mighty commander who was the assailant, it terminated in the space of four days in his utter ruin and that of his army. A drama, at once so pregnant with interest to the student of the art of war, so grand in its scenes, and so tragic in its issues, will always arrest the attention of our race; and probably to the latest generation, mankind will dwell on the daring spring which Napoleon made upon Blucher and Wellington, on the movements that led to Ligny and Quatre Bras, on the mortal struggle of the 18th of June, on the brilliant march that decided that day, and on the train of mistakes and false purposes that, notwithstanding the heroism of the French, produced the final and complete catastrophe. Our remotest descendants will be attracted to the plains of Belgium in 1915, with the same sympathy which attracts us to the battle-fields of Zama and Pharsalia. In the descriptions given of this great conflict, the vanquished nation, in our judgment, has certainly gained a victory over its conqueror. General Kennedy indeed, who like a true soldier, has little respect for any accounts of the campaign, except those of military eye-witnesses, says justly that the narrative of Napoleon, though marked with the stamp of his brilliant genius, overflows with falsehood and misstatement, and we much prefer the report of the Duke, though that is necessarily meagre and imperfect. But we cannot exclude from our consideration those historians who, though not spectators, have studied, and elucidated the subject; and, taking the list, the French, we think, have greatly eclipsed their English competitors. Colonel Charras's book, though very one-sided, and composed obviously to decry Napoleon, is a very able and elaborate work; and even the gorgeous romance of Thiers, though full of Bonapartist flattery and boasting, is, in its way, a remarkable performance. M. Quinet, too, has written some papers of sterling value upon the campaign, and Jomini's tract, if somewhat superficial, deserves certainly a reader's attention. On the other hand, the English accounts, are, almost without exception, deficient in some main requisite of a military narrative. Sir Archibald Alison is tawdry and confused, and does not convey a vivid impression; the description of Siborne, though rich in details, and wonderfully accurate in its particular facts, is without order and general views; and the useful volume of Mr. Hooper, the best English sketch we possess, is wanting in striking effect and animation. In this state of comparative dearth we turned eagerly to General Kennedy's volume to ascertain if it satisfied our conception of a good English account of Waterloo. We have been much pleased in some respects, and not a little disappointed in others. General Kennedy's description of that part of the battle of the 18th of June, which he witnessed himself, is in a very high degree important, and differs from every other we have read; his observations on the manœuvres of the day deserve study, and are singularly clear, and his criticism on some of the phases of the campaign are often ingenious, acute, and masterly. But his "Notes" unfortunately do not comprehend a great deal of the earlier operations, especially those of the 16th of June, strategically of the very highest interest; and his method and style, though logical and simple, are not those of a real historian who can place before us events like a drama. His tract, therefore, is a mere fragment, an essay, useful, but incomplete; and his narrative is a military anatomy rather than a series of vigorous military pictures. We think, too, that he has not studied the evidence existing on the subject fully; so much so, that we venture to doubt, whether, though he takes the allies to task for their dispositions at the outset of the campaign, he has ever read the celebrated defence of Wellington on this cardinal point, in his formal reply to General Clausewitz. On the whole, this volume, though of much value as a contribution to Waterloo literature, is not all that the reader wants; and, like several other works of the kind, it makes us regret that the stirring theme was not undertaken by Sir William Napier, whose thorough appreciation of the science of war, just estimate both of Napoleon and Wellington, and fine genius for military painting marked him out as the fitting historian of the contest. Sir William, however, as is well known, declined always to enter on the subject, believing, what we very much doubt, that the truth, respecting one crisis of the campaign, the movements of |