BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. § 28. Passions both groups. selves against him, some degree of hostility or illwill, though it may be very small, and even though we may struggle against it, is invariably included. Add energy to illwill, or infuse energy into resisting the belonging to will of another person, and the effect is the same, namely, a certain increase in antipathetic emotion. Suppose this energy of self-assertion greatly increased, and the illwill becomes a passion, anger is intensified into rage. At the same time the object of this emotion has assumed a different appearance; he has increased in the intensity of his represented hatefulness, and in the number of hateful traits imagined or represented to belong to him. $29. Emotions comparison. § 29. 1. It is next in order to examine a group of emotions which depend upon a more complete di- arising from vision and more complex relations between the mind. of the Subject and other minds, and upon the consequent comparison of the two by the Subject. These may be called emotions of comparison, to distinguish them from the simply sympathetic and antipathetic. They include and suppose a representation of the feelings of the other mind in view of the comparison which is drawn between the two, and which is known by both, or is an image common to both. These emotions fall into two great classes, according as the comparison is drawn between the possessions and external advantages of the two minds, or between their natural qualities and powers. The first kind of comparison may be called the comparison of Having, the second that of Being; and they give rise to quite distinct sets of emotions. The first mentioned kind seems to arise first in historical order. When we compare our own possessions, clothing, attendants, dignities, titles, and the respect paid to us by VOL. I. P BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. § 29. Emotions arising from comparison. others, with those of another person, and find ourselves come short in contrast with him, and also figure to ourselves that he is also aware of the same contrast, favourable to him but unfavourable to us, the emotions which we feel may be described under the general name of ashamedness towards ourselves and of admiration of externals towards him; when the contrast is equally great but the advantage is on our side, we feel some mode of vanity towards ourselves and some kind of contempt towards him. There are no appropriate single names for the two emotions first mentioned, probably because, being painful, they do not become passions, and thus are not so much noticed. Vanity however and contempt, which arise from the favourable comparison and are therefore pleasant, are indulged and thus become passions, for which reason they are most prominent and their names current. Yet passion and emotion always go hand in hand, and there is no passion which is not founded in some emotion, nor any emotion which does not give rise to some passion, though if the emotion is painful the passion will not be the simple completion of the emotion; in this case the passion is the irritable desire not to increase but to lessen or escape from the emotion in which it arises; and in the case of the two emotions first mentioned, ashamedness and admiration of externals, it will assume some form of antipathetic emotion, illwill, or hate, towards the person in contrast with ourselves. Vanity has been defined as the desire of pleasing; it is rather the desire of exciting the emotion of comparison favourable to ourselves in matters of external show and advantage; the desire of pleasing is an euphemism; there is no goodwill in vanity except BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. $ 29. Emotions comparison. incidentally, from being pleased with oneself; the pleasure of others is never its purpose. It is true that vanity is a social quality, since it depends upon the verdict of others as much as upon one's own, arising from and indeed arises only in the representation of what others will think of the comparison which both alike must draw. It thus becomes a motive of endeavours to excel, and is indirectly beneficial to society; just in the same way as discontent is a benefit, both to oneself and others, in its effects, though uneasy and painful by itself. 2. Vanity and contempt, then, are names for these emotions of comparison in their character of passions; or rather the same names serve for them in both characters. Their opposites, ashamedness and admiration of externals, have no single current names as emotions, for being painful they have no passions in indulgence, and as passions have escaped notice altogether. But the passions which arise from them are envy and jealousy, forms of illwill or hate, as already remarked. Of these, envy refers to the past and present, being without fear of future encroachments; jealousy includes fear of such encroachments of the powers or possessions of others, and refers rather to the future; it is a guarding, watchful, passion, while envy is a brooding one. 3. The emotions of the second kind of comparison, that of Being, are also four in number, but arise in comparison of the nature and natural qualities rather than of possessions and dignities; which latter however may always be regarded as results of the former, and cannot always be separated from them; for instance, a man may possess the knowledge of many languages, and eo ipso he is a linguist; but in such BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. $29. Emotions arising from comparison. cases we always distinguish whether he has used or misused his opportunities, and, if it appears that he had this acquirement forced upon him without any or with little energy of his own, we set it down as a possession, while, if it has been the creation of his own energy and ability, we consider it as part of the man himself; in the former case we are inclined to envy him, in the latter to admire him sincerely. Cases like this show at once the difficulty of distinguishing what a man is from what he has, but also at the same time the necessity for drawing the distinction as a fundamental one in analysis, since it is always drawn, though tacitly, in practice, and, though varying with each case, and with the mood of each person who draws it, is always permanent as a distinction; and we always justify our envy or our admiration by drawing it in the cases where we feel these emotions. Personal beauty, high birth, eloquence, grace of demeanour, polished manners, strength, courage, and so on, and also the opposite qualities to these, although not acquired by merit or effort, are yet so bound up with our representations of the persons in question, that we cannot separate them and consider these qualities as their mere possessions. Wealth however alone, inherited or even acquired, or peculiar good fortune, can be separated in representation, and these accordingly are considered possessions. It is always the representation that decides; that which cannot be sundered in representation cannot in emotion. No abstract considerations of merit or effort, founded on theories of the will, are of weight here; the laws of representation decide the question of what is part of the nature, and what part of the possessions. BOOK I. CH. II. PART IV. § 29. Emotions comparison. 4. Whenever, then, the mind draws a comparison between itself and others in respect of qualities which it considers at the time as personal and inseparable, belonging to nature and not to possession, it feels, arising from if the balance is unfavourable to itself, humility towards itself and some form of admiration of essentials towards the other mind; if the balance is favourable to itself, it feels some kind of self-complacency towards itself and some kind of scorn towards the other person. These at least are the general terms of which there are many degrees and many modifications. A similar remark as to passions is applicable here as in the former division, namely, that self-complacency and scorn are commonly thought of as indulged, that is, as passions, while the painful emotions are considered emotions alone. The passion which proceeds from these uneasy emotions of comparison of being, the desire to equalise the balance or turn it the other way, is emulation, os. This passion is not akin to illwill or any of the antipathetic emotions; its essence consists in wishing the opposite person to be fully as good and noble as he is, in order that our own character may come up to his; it does not aim at lowering another, because the excellence is represented as part of his nature, and that representation is fixed. As little as possible, no doubt, is admitted into the representation of what the man is, in view of this comparison; but when. once that image is fixed, emulation can only be gratified by reaching and surpassing not by lowering it. The mind would not be satisfied with a victory in externals, when promising itself a contest in essentials; hence emulation, the emulation proper to this second division of emotions of comparison, is chival |