greatly opposed the design of James VI. to bring the church of Scotland to a conformity with that of England. For his violent conduct he was sent to prison, and afterwards banished for life. On this he went to Holland, where, in 1623, he published a celebrated book, entitled, Altare Damescenum sen ecclesiæ Anglicanæ politia, ecclesiæ Scoticana obtrusa à formalista quodam delicata: illustrata et examinata. He afterwards came back, and lived in his own country privately, and employed his time in writing an ecclesiastical History of Scotland; of which a part has been printed. He died about 1638. (Watkins.) CAʼLDRON. s. (chauldron, Fr.) A pot; a boiler; a kettle (Addison).

CAʼLDRONS (Boiling in), a punishment in the middle ages inflicted upon debasers of coin. Christian martyrs have also undergone this punishment, for the crime of “ walking in all the commandments of the Lord, blameless." CALDWALL (Richard), an English physician; born in Staffordshire about 1513, and educated at Brazen-nose college, Oxford, where he took his degrees and was chosen fellow, His reputation was so great, that he was elected censor of the College of Physicians, London, where also he fougied a cheinical lecture. He died in 1585.

CALEA. In botany, a genus of the class syngenesia, order polygamia æqualis. Receptacle chaffy; down simple; calyx imbricate. Eight species; natives of the West Indies and America.

CALEDONIA, the ancient name of Scotland. From the testimonies of Tacitus, Dio, and Solinus, we find, that the ancient Caledonia comprehended all that country lying to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde. In proportion as the Silures or Cimbri advanced towards the north, the Caledonians being circumscribed within narrower limits, were forced to transmigrate into the islands which crowd the western coasts of Scotland. It is in this period, probably, we ought to place the first great migration of the British Gael into Ireland; that kingdom being much nearer to the promontory of Galloway and Cantire, than many of the Scottish isles are to the continent of North Britain. To the country which the Caledonians possessed, they gave the name of Gaël-doch; which is the only appellation the Scots, who spake the Gaelic language, know for their own division of Britain. Gaël-doch is a compound, made up of Gaël or Caël, the first colony of the ancient Gauls who transmigrated into Britain, and doch, a district or division of a country. The Romans, by transposing the letter 1 in Cael, and by softening into a Latin termination the ch of doch, formed the well-known name of Caledonia.

CALEDONIA (New), the largest island in the South Pacific ocean, except New Holland, and New Zealand, extending from lat. 19. 37 to 22.50 South, and from lon. 163. 37 to 167. 14 East, being about 261 miles long, and 30 broad. It was discovered by captain Cook in 1774. Towards the N. W. it terminates in

broken land, and he thought it probable that a chain of isles, sand-banks, and reefs, extend as far as the coast of New South Wales, through a space of 200 leagues. Towards the South-East, it terminates also in shoals and small islands. Indeed, the whole, or greatest part of it, is surrounded by reefs or shoals, which render access to it very dangerous. In this country are several plants, &c. common to the eastern and northern islands, and evea a species of the passion-flower, which before was never known to grow wild but in America. Of hogs, dogs, or other quadrupeds, the natives had not the least knowledge t. I captain Cook left them a breed of each. Land birds are not numerous; but several are new, particularly a kind of crow, some very beamiful turtle-doves, and other smaller birds. The inhabitants are strong, robust, active, and wellmade; they are peaceable, courteous and friendly to strangers, and are not in the least addicted to thieving. Notwithstanding their pacito inclination, they must sometimes have wars, as they are well provided with offensive weapons, such as clubs, spears, darts, and slings, These are all very neatly made, and ornamented with carving. They deposit their dead i the ground, and decorite the graves of their chie's with spears, darts, and paddles, &c. alt stuck upright in the ground about it. The women are far more chaste than those of the more eastern islands. Of their religion and government nothing farther is known than that the country is divided into several districts, each under its own chief. From its natural sterility it is but thinly peopled.

CALEFACIENTS. (Calefacientia, from calidus, warm, and facio, to make.) Medicines, or other substances, which excite a degree of warmth in the parts to which they are applied; as, piper, spiritus vini, &c.

CALEFACTION, the heating of a body by the action of fire, or that impulse impressed by a hot body on others around it.. This word is used in pharmacy, by way of distinction from coction, which implies boiling; whereas calefaction is only heating a thing.

CALEFACTIVE. CALEFACTORY. 6. (from calefacio, Lat.) That makes any thing hot; heating.

To CAʼLEFY. v. n. (calefio, Lat.) To grow hot; to be heated (Brown).

CALENBERG, a town and castle of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is subject to the duke of Brunswick Lunenburg, elector of Hanover, and king of England. Lai. 52. 15 N. Lon. 10. 5 E.

CALENDAR, or KALENDAR, a distribution of time as accommodated to the uses of life; or an almanac, or table, containing the order of days, weeks, months, feasts, &c. occurring in the course of the year: being so called from the word calendæ, which among the Romans denoted the first days of every month, and anciently was written in large characters at the head of each month. See ALMANAC, CALENDS, MONTH, TIME, YEAR, &C.

The Roman Calendar was first formed by Romulus, who distributed time into several periods for the use of his followers and people. le divided the year into 10 months, of 304 days; beginning on the first of March, and ending with December.

Numa reformed the calendar of Romulus. He added the months of January and February, making it to commence on the first of January, and to consist of 355 days. But as this was evidently deficient of the true year, he ordered an intercalation of 45 days to be made every 4 years, in this manner, viz. every 2 years an additional month of 22 days, between February and March; and at the end of each two years inore, another month of 23 days; the month thus interposed, being called Marcedonius, or the intercalary February.

Julius Caesar, with the aid of Sosigenes, a celebrated astronomer of those times, farther reformed the Roman calendar, from whence arose the Julian calendar, and the Julian or old style. Finding that the sun performed his annual course in 365 days and a quarter nearly, he divided the year into 365 days, but every 4th year 366 days, adding a day that year before the 24th of February; as stated under BISSEXTILE. This was farther reformed by order of pope Gregory XIII.; whence arose the terms Gregorarian calendar and style, or new style; for the year of Julian being too long by nearly 11 minutes, it became necessary to omit three Jeap-years in the course of four centuries, which is done as stated under BISSEXTILE.

A curious account of the calendars of Romulus, of Numa Pompilius, and of Julius Cæsar, with specimens, may be seen in M. Danet's Dictionary of Antiquities, art. Calendarium.

Julian Christian Calendar, is that in which the days of the week are determined by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, by means of the solar cycle; and the new and full moons, particularly the paschal, full moon, with the feast of Easter, and the other moveable feasts depending upon it, by means of golden numbers, or lunar cycles, rightly disposed through the Julian year. See CYCLE and GOLDEN NUMBER. Gregorian Calendar, is that which, by means of epacts, rightly disposed through the several months, determines the new and full moons, with the time of Easter, and the moveable feasts depending upon it, in the Gregorian year. This differs therefore from the Julian calendar, both in the form of the year, and in as much as epacts are substituted instead of golden numbers. See EPACT.

Though the Gregorian calendar be more accurate than the Julian, yet it is not without imperfections, as Scaliger and Calvisius have fully shewn; nor is it perhaps possible to devise any one that shall be quite perfect. Yet the reformed calendar, and that which is ordered to be observed in England, by act of parliament made the 24th of George II., come very near to the point of accuracy: for by that act it is ordered that "Easter day, on which the rest depend, is always the first Sunday after the full moon which happens upon or next after

the 21st day of March; and if the full moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday after."

Dr. Playfair, in his "System of Chronology, observes that the method of intercalation used in the Gregorian calendar is not the most accurate. Ninety-seven days, or 100-3, are inserted in the space of four centuries. This supposes the tropical year to consist of 3654, 5, 49, 12′′. On this supposition the interpolation would be exact, and the error would scarcely exceed one day in 268,000 years. But the reformers of the calendar made use of the Copernican year of 365, 51, 49′, 20". Instead, therefore, of inserting 97 days in 400 years, they ought to have added, at proper intervals, 41 days in 169 years, or 90 days in 371 years, or 131 in 540 years, &c. Recent observations have determined the quantity of the tropical year to be 365, 5, 48′, 451′′. Admitting this to be the true quantity of it, the intercalations ought to be made as follows:

-

intercalated in the space of 4 years, or rather 4 days in 17 years, or 8 days in 33 years, &c. If 41,851 days were intercalated in 172,800 years there would be no error. The signs and indicate that the number of intercalary days above which they are placed is too great or too small. Every succeeding number is more accurate than that which goes before. As this method of interpolation is different from that now in use, it is obvious that the Gregorian calendar must be corrected after a certain period of years. The correction, however, will be inconsiderable for many ages, as it will amount only to a day and a half, which is to be suppressed in the space of 5000 years.

Reformed or Corrected Calendar, is that which, rejecting all the apparatus of golden numbers, epacts, and dominical letters, determines the equinox, and the paschal full moon, with the moveable feasts depending upon it, by computation from astronomical tables. This calendar was introduced among the protestant states of Germany in the year 1700, when 11 days were omitted in the month of February, to make the corrected style agree with the Gregorian. This alteration in the form of the year they admitted for a time; in expectation that, the true quantity of the tropical year being at length more accurately determined by observation, the Romanists would agree with them on some more convenient intercalation.

New French Calendar; a new form of calendar that commenced in France, September 22, 1792. We give a brief account of it as a curiosity in the science of chronology, although it is not very probable that it will be made permanent. Indeed M. Jerome Lalande, in his

The year, in this calendar, commenced at midnight the beginning of that day in which falls the true autumnal equinox for the observatory of Paris. The year was divided into 12 equal months, of 30 days each; after which 5 supplementary days were added, to complete the 365 days of the ordinary year: these 5 days do not belong to any month. Each month was divided into three decades of 10 days each; distinguished by 1st, 2d, and 3d decade. All these were named according to the order of the natural numbers, viz. the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c.

month, or day of the decade, or of the supplementary days. The years which receive an intercalary day, when the position of the equinox requires it, which we call embolismic or bissextile, they called olimpic; and the period of four years, ending with an olimpic year, was called an olimpiade; the intercalary day being placed after the ordinary five supplementary days, and making the last day of the olimpie year. Each day, from midnight to midnight, was divided into 10 parts, each part into 10 others, and so on to the last measurable portion of time.

In this calendar too the months and days of them had new names. The days were named according to their order in their respective decade, as Primdi, Dicodi, Tridi,&c. The months were named as in the following table, where the first day of each month of the new French calendar is made to correspond with the proper day of the common calendar.

1. Ventose,

or

Wind

Month.

19 February

20

21

23

24

23

24

22

23

17 September *

18

19

CALENDAR (Astronomical), an instrument printed on paper, and pasted on board, with a brass slider which carries a hair, and shews by inspection the sur's meridian altitude, right ascension, declination, rising, setting, &c. CALENDAR OF PRISONERS, in law, a list of all the prisoners' names in the custody of each respective sheriff. See the article EXE

CUTION.

CALENDARIUM FLORE, in botany, a calendar containing an exact register of the rspective times in which the plants of any given province or climate germinate, expand, and shed their leaves and flowers, or ripen and disperse their seeds. For particulars on this curious subject, see the articles BOTANY and GERMINATION.

To CALENDER. v. a. (calendrer, Fr.) To dress cloth.

CALENDER, a machine used in manufactories to press certain woollen and silken stuffs, and linens, to make them smooth, even, and glossy, or to give them waves, er water them, as may be seen in mohairs and tabbies. This instrument is composed of two thick cylinders, or rollers, of very hard and polished wood, round which the stuffs to be calendered are wound: these rollers are placed crossways be tween two very thick boards, the lower serving as a fixed base, and the upper moveable, by means of a thick screw, with a rope fastened to a spindle, which makes its axis: the uppermost board is loaded with large stones cemented together, weighing 20,000 lbs. or more. It is this weight that gives the polish, and makes the waves on the stuffs about the rollers. At Paris they have an extraordinary machine of this kind, called the roval calender, made by order of M. Colbert. The lower table or plank is made of a block of smooth marble, and the upper is lined with a plate of polished copper. The alternate motion of the upper board, sometimes one way and sometimes another, together with the prodigious weight laid upon it, gives the stuffs their gloss and smoothness; or gives them the waves, by making the cylinders on which they are put roll with great force over the undermost board. When they would put a roller from under the calender, they only incline the undermost board of the machine. The dressing alone, with the many turns they make the stuffs and linens undergo in the calender, gives the waves, or waters them, as the workinen call it. It is a mistake to think, as some have asserted, and Chambers among others, that they use rollers with a shallow indenture or engraving cut

into them.

CALENDER OF MONTEITH, a district in the south-west corner of Perthshire in Scotland.

CALENDERS, a sort of Mahometan friars, so called from Santon Calenderi their founder. This Santon went bare-headed, without a shirt, and with the skin of a wild beast thrown over his shoulders. He wore a kind of apron before, the strings of which were adorned with

counterfeit precious stones. His disciples are rather a sect of Epicureans than a society of religious. They honour a tavern as much as they do a mosque.

ČAʼLENDRER. s. (from calender.) The person who calenders.

CALENDS, or KALENDS, in the Roman chronology, the first day of every month. The word is formed from xxw, I call, or proclaim; because, before the publication of the Roman fasti, it was one of the oflices of the pontifices to watch the appearance of the new moon, and give notice thereof to the rex sacrificulus; upon which a sacrifice being offered, the pontiff summoned the people together in the Capitol, and there with a loud voice proclaimed the number of calends, or the day whereon the nones would be; which he did by repeating this formula as often as there were days of calends, "Calo Juno Novella." Whence the name calenda was given thereto, from calo, calare. This is the account given by Varro.

The calends were reckoned backwards, or in a retrograde order. Thus, v. g. the first of May being the calends of May, the last or the 30th of April was the pridie kalendarum, or second of the calends of May; the 29th of April, the third of the calends, or before the calends: and so back to the 13th, where the ides commence; which are likewise numbered invertedly to the fifth, where the nones begin; which are numbered after the same manner to the first day of the month, which is the calends of April. See IDES, and NONES.

Hence comes this rule to find the day of the calends answering to any day of the month, viz. Consider how many days of the month are yet remaining after the day proposed, and to that number add 2, for the number of or from the calends. For example, suppose it were the 23d day of April, it would then be the 9th of the calends of May: for April containing 30 days, from which 23 being taken, there remains 7; to which 2 being added, makes the sum 9. And the reason for this addition of the constant number 2, is because the last day of the month is called the 2d of the calends of the month following.

CALENDULA. (Calendula; quod singu lis calendis, i. e. mensibus florescat: so called because it flowers every month.) Marigold. In botany, a genus of the class syngenesia, or der polygamia necessaria. Receptacle naked, flat; downless; calyx many-leaved, nearly equal; seeds of the disk membranaceous. Twenty-five species--chiefly Cape plants, the rest principally of the south of Europe. The greater part of these are so common, and so casily propagated, that we shall notice but two; the first as of easiest access; the second as differing in some respects from all the rest.

1. C. arvensis. Wild narigold. Found in our own fields; with seeds boat-shaped, muricate, incurved; outer ones lance-subulate, muricate on the back.

2. C. fruticosa, with a shrubby perennial,

decumbent stem, requiring support: leaves obovate, slightly toothed.

The flowers and leaves of the common marigold, calendula officinalis: seminibus cymbiformibus, muricatis, incurvatis, omnibus, of Linnéus, have been exhibited medicinally: the former, as aperients in uterine obstructions and icteric disorders, and as diaphoretics in exanthematous fevers; the latter, as gentle aperients, and to promote the secretions in general.

CALENTES, in logic, a sort of syllogism in the fourth, commonly called galenical figure, wherein the major proposition is universal and affirmative; and the second or minor, as well as the conclusion, universal and negative.

This is intimated by the letters it is composed of, where the A signifies an universal affirmative, and the two E's as many universal negatives. E. gr. CA

Every affliction in this world is only

for a time.

LEN No affliction, which is only for a time,

ought to disturb us.

TES No affliction ought to disturb us, which happens in this world.

CALENTURE. (from caleo, to make hot; either because it originates from the excessive heat of the climate, or from the burning heat with which it is accompanied.) A violent and ardent fever common among seamen who have sailed into hot climates; during which they imagine the sea to be green fields, and will throw themselves into it if not restrained.

CALETES (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia Celtica, on the confines of Belgica, situated between the sea and the Sequana. Now called Le Pais de Caux, in Normandy.

CALF. s. calves in the plural. (cealy, Sax.) 1. The young of a cow (Wilkins). 2. Calves of the lip, mentioned by Hosea, signify sacrifices of praise and prayers. 3. A dolt; a stupid wretch (Drayton). 4. The thick, plump, bulbous part of the leg [half, Dutch.] (Suck ling).

CALF, among sportsmen, a male hart, or hind of the first year.

CALF also denotes the young of the whale. CALF-SKINS, in the leather manufacture, are prepared and dressed by the tanners, skinners, and curriers, who sell them for the use of the shoe-makers, sadlers, book-binders, and other artificers, to employ in their several ma

nufactures.

CALF'S SNOUT, in botany. See ANTIR

RHINUM ORONTIUM.

CALI, See KALI and ALKALI. CALIBER, or CALIPER, properly denotes the diameter of any body: thus we say, two columns of the same caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the caliber of a bullet, &c.

CALIBER-COMPASSES,OT CALIPER-COMPASSES, or simply CALIPERS, a sort of compasses made with bowed or arched legs, the better to take the diameter of any round body;

as the diameters of balls, or the bores of guns, or the diameter, and even length of casks, and such like. The best sort of calipers usually contain the following articles, viz. 1st, the measure of convex diameters in inches, &c.; 2d, of concave diameters; 3d, the weight of iron shot of given diameters; 4th, the weight of iron shot for given gun bores; 5th, the degrees of a semicircle; 6th, the proportion of troy and avoirdupois weight; 7th, the proportion of English and French feet and pounds weight; 8th, factors used in circular and spherical figures; 9th, tables of the specie gravities and weights of bodies; 10th, tables of the quantity of powder necessary for the proof and service of brass and iron guns; 11th, rules for computing the number of shot of shells in a complete pile; 12th, rules for the fall or descent of heavy bodies; 13th, rules for the raising of water; 14th, rules for firing artillery and mortars; 15th, a line of inches;

16th, logarithmic scales of numbers, sines, versed sines, and tangents; 17th, a sectoral line of equal parts, or the line of lines; 18th, a sectoral line of planes and superficies; and, 19th, a sectoral line of solids.

CALICA, in mythology, an Indian god dess, which seems to have possessed the attri butes of the Grecian Hecate.

CA'LICE. s. (calix, Lat.) A cup; a chalice. CALICO, a species of cloth of cottes thread, manufactured formerly at Calicut in the East Indies; but now we have in this country established manufactories which equal those in the east. It is said that in this bustness, and in the printing of calicoes, there are 150,000 persons employed. Cotton, in its raw state, is imported into this country, but calicoes are prohibited under the severest pe nalties.

CALICO-PRINTING: the art of clothprinting or calico-printing, in other words, of dyeing in certain colours particular spots of the cloth, or figures impressed on it, while the ground shall be of a different colour, or etirely white, affords perhaps the most direct and obvious illustration of the application of chemical principles. The mordant which is principally used in this process is the acetate c argil. It is prepared by dissolving 3 lbs, e alum and 1 lb. of acetate of lead in 8 lbs of warm water. An exchange of the principles of these salts takes place: the sulphuric acide the alum combines with the oxide of lead, and the compound thus formed being insoluble s precipitated, the acetic acid remains united with the argil of the alum in solution. Ther are added at the same time two ounces of the potash of commerce, and two ounces of chaik, the principal use of which appears to be, neutralize the excess of acid that might act on the colouring matter and alter its shade.

The superiority of this acetate of argil as a mordant to the cheaper sulphat of arg er alum, arises principally from two circum) stances; from the affinity betweeen its pri ciples being weaker, in consequence of which