5000 inhabitants. Calvinists, Lutherans, and Roman Catholics, are all tolerated in this city. E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 51, 45.

CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put himself under the protection of some great man, who in respect of that relation was called patron.

This patron assisted his client with his protection, interest, and goods; and the client gave his vote for his patron, when he sought any office for himself or his friends. Clients owed respect to their patrons, as these owed them their protection.

The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus, to unite the rich and poor together, in such a manner as that one might live without contempt and the other without envy; but the condition of a client, in course of time, became little else than a moderate sla

very.

CLIENT is now used for a party in a law-suit, who has turned over his cause into the hands of a counsellor or solicitor.

CLIFFORTIA. See BOTANY Index.

CLIMACTERIC, among physicians, (from chi macter, a ladder"), a critical year in a person's life.

According to some, this is every seventh year; but others allow only these years produced by multiplying 7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climacterical. These years, they say, bring with them some remarkable change with respect to health, life, or fortune the grand climacteric is the 63d year; but some, making two, add to this the 81st: the other remarkable climacterics are the 7th, 21st, 35th, 49th, and 56th.

CLIMATE, or CLIME, in Geography, a part of the surface of the earth, bounded by two circles parallel to the equator, and of such a breadth, as that the longest day in the parallel nearest the pole exceeds the longest day in that next the equator by some certain spaces, viz. half an hour. The word comes from the Greek nλpa, inclinamentum, "an inclination."

The beginning of the climate is a parallel circle wherein the day is the shortest. The end of the climate, is that wherein the day is the longest. The climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to

the pole; and are so many bands, or zones, termi- Climat nated by lines parallel to the equator; though, in Clim strictness, there are several climates in the breadth of one zone. Each climate only differs from its contiguous ones, in that the longest day in summer is longer or shorter by half an hour in the one place than in the other. As the climates commence from the equator, the first climate at its beginning has its longest day precisely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and a half: the second, which begins where the first ends, viz. at twelve hours and a half, ends at 13 hours; and so of the rest, as far as the polar circles, where, what the geographers call hour-climates terminate, and monthclimates commence. An hour climate is a space com. prised between two parallels of the equator, in the first of which the longest day exceeds that in the latter by half an hour; so the month-climate is a space terminated between two circles parallel to the polar cir cles, whose longest day is longer or shorter than that of its contiguous one by a month or 30 days.

The ancients who confined the climates to what they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only allowed of seven. The first they made to pass through Meroë, the second through Sienna, the third through Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth through Rome, the sixth through Pontus, and the seventh through the mouth of the Borysthenes. The moderns, who have sailed further toward the poles, make 30 climates on each side; and, in regard the obliquity of the sphere makes a little difference in the length of the longest day; instead of half an hour, some only make the difference of climates a quarter.

Vulgarly the term climate is bestowed on any country or region differing from another either in respect of the seasons, the quality of the soil, or even the manners of the inhabitants; without any regard to the length of the longest day. Abulfeda, an Arabian author, distinguishes the first kind of climates by the term real climates, and the latter by that of apparent climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30 climates; but without any regard to the refraction. Ricciolus furnishes a more accurate one, wherein the refractions are allowed for; an abstract of which follows. See this subject fully treated in the article CLIMATE in the SUPPLEMENT.

Cont. North Cont. South Light. Night. Light. Night.

Latit.

V

14 029 49 14 30 35 35 XII 20

ΧΙ 19

6 124

117

120

118

156

148 150 149 188 180 178 177

gradation of Dr Tillotson. gradation of Dr Tillotson. "After we have practised good actions a while, they become easy; and when they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them; and when they please us we do them frequently; and by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit; and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature and so far as

any

CLIO, in Pagan mythology, the first of the muses, daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over history. She is represented crowned with laurels, holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the other. Sometimes she holds a plectrum or quill with a lute. Her name signifies honour and reputation, xλeos, gloria; and it was her office faithfully to record the actions of brave and illustrious heroes. She had Hyacintha by Pierius, son of Magnes.

CLIO, in Zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes mollusca. The body is oblong and fitted for swimming; and it has two membranaceous wings placed opposite to each other. The species are three, principally distinguished by the shape of their vagina, and are all natives of the ocean.

CLIPEUS, an old term in Natural History, which is given to the flat depressed centroniæ, from their resembling a shield.

CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magistrate, the author of the mode of banishing ambitious citizens by ostracism, or writing their names upon a shell; the intention was patriotic, but it was abused like all other human institutions: some of the worthiest citizens of Athens being thus exiled. He died 510 years before Christ.

CLITOMACHUS, the philosopher, flourished about 140 years before Christ. He was born at Carthage; quitted his country at 40 years of age; and went to Athens, where he became the disciple and successor of Carneades. He composed many books, but they are all lost.

CLITORIA. See BOTANY Index.

CLITORIS, in Anatomy, is a part of the external pudenda, situated at the angle which the nymphæ form with each other. Like the penis it has an erection, and is thought to be the principal seat of venereal pleasure. The clitoris is of different sizes in different women; but in general it is small, and covered with the labia. The preternaturally enlarged clitoris is what constitutes a hermaphrodite. When the clitoris is too large, it may be so extirpated as to remove the unnecessary part; but this requires much care, for

a farther extirpation subjects the patient to an involuntary discharge of urine.

CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Umbria, on this side the Apennines. According to Pliny, it was a fountain consisting of several veins, situated between Hispellum and Spoletium; which soon after swelled into a very large and navigable river, running from east to west into the Tinia, and both together into the Tiber. A river famous for its milkwhite flocks and herds, (Virgil). The god of the river was called Clitumnus.

CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great's nurse, followed that prince in his conquests, and saved his life by cutting off the hand of Rosaces, who held an axe lifted up to kill him at the passage of the Granicus. Alexander, who had a great regard for him, some time after invited him to supper; when Clitus, at the end of the repast, being heated with wine, diminished the exploits of that prince, in order to magnify those of Philip his father. This so enraged Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand; but he was afterwards so afflicted at it, that he attempted his own life.

CLIVE, ROBERT, Lord, son of Richard Clive, Esq. of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725. Toward the close of the war in 1741, he was sent as a writer in the East India service to Madras; but being fonder of the camp than the compting-house, he soon availed himself of an opportunity to exchange his pen for a pair of colours. He first distinguished himself at the siege of Pondicherry in 1748; acted under Major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in Tanjore, who wrote of his military talents in high terms; commanded a small party for the taking of Arcot, and afterwards defended that place against the French; and performed many other exploits, which, considering the remoteness of the scene of action, would require a long detail to render sufficiently intelligible. He was, however, in brief, looked upou and acknowledged as the man who first roused his countrymen to spirited action, and raised their reputation in the East; so that when he came over to England in 1753, he was presented, by the court of directors, with a rich sword set with diamonds, as an acknowledgment of past, and an incitement to future, services. Captain Clive returned to India, in 1755, as governor of Fort St David, with the rank of lieutenantcolonel in the king's troops; when as commander of the company's troops, he, in conjunction with Admiral Watson, reduced Angria the pirate, and became master of Geria, his capital, with all his accumulated treasure. On the loss of Calcutta, and the well known barbarity of the sonbah Surajah Dowlah, they sailed to Bengal; where they took Fort William, in January 1757; and Colonel Clive defeating the soubah's army soon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowlah's perfidy, however, soon produced fresh hostilities, which ended in his ruin; he being totally defeated by Colonel Clive at the famous battle of Plassey. The next day, the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph; and placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal generals, on the throne; the deposed soubah was soon after taken, and privately put to death by Jaffier's son. Admiral Watson died at Calcutta ; but Colonel Clive

commanded in Bengal the two succeeding years; he

was

Clive W

was honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an omrah of the empire; and was rewarded by the new Clock. soubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing 27,000l. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England, where he received the unanimous thanks of the company, was elected member of parliament for Shrewsbury, and was raised to an Irish peerage by the title of Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. In 1764, fresh disturbances taking place in Bengal, Lord Clive was esteemed the only man qualified to settle them, and was accordingly again appointed to that presidency; after being honoured with the order of the Bath, and with the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India, he exceeded the most sanguine expectation, in restoring tranquillity to the province without striking a blow, and fixed the highest ideas of the British power in the minds of the natives. He returned home in 1767; and in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry into the conduct of the East India Company was agitated, he entered into an able justification of himself in a masterly speech in the house of commons. He died suddenly towards the close of the year 1774.

CLOACE, in antiquity, the common sewers of Rome, to carry off the dirt and soil of the city into the Tiber; justly reckoned among the grand works of the Romans. The first common sewer, called Cloaca Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, some say Priscus, others Superbus, of huge blocks of stone joined together without any cement, in the manner of the edifices of those early times, consisting of three rows of arches one above another, which at length conjoin and unite together; measuring in the clear 18 palms in height, and as many in width. Under these arches, they rowed in boats, which made Pliny say that the city was suspended in air, and that they sailed beneath the houses. Under these arches also were ways through which carts loaded with hay could pass with ease. It began in the Forum Romanum; measured 300 paces in length; and emptied itself between the temple of Vesta and the Pons Senatorius. There were as many principal sewers as there were hills. Pliny concludes their firmness and strength from their stand ing for so many ages the shocks of earthquakes, the fall of houses, and the vast loads and weights moved over them.

CLOACINA, the goddess of jakes and common sewers, among the Romans.

CLOCK, a machine constructed in such a manner, and regulated so by the uniform motion of a pendulum (A), as to measure time, and all its subdivisions, with great exactness.

The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time of Lotharius son of Louis the Debonnair, on the credit of an epitaph quoted by Ughelli, and borrowed by him from Panvinius. They were at first called nocturnal dials, to distinguish them from sun-dials, which showed the hour by the sun's shadow. Others ascribe the invention to Boethius, about the year 510. Mr Derham makes clock-work of a much older standing;

and ranks Archimedes's sphere mentioned by Claudian, and that of Posidonius mentioned by Cicero, among the machines of this kind: not that either their form or use was the same with those of ours, but that they had their motion from some hidden weights or springs, with wheels or pulleys, or some such clockwork principle. But be this as it will, it is certain the art of making clocks, such as are now in use, was either first invented, or at least retrieved, in Germany, about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepsydræ, and sun-dials, have both a much better claim to antiquity. The French annals mention one of the former kind sent by Aaron, king of Persia, to Charlemagne, about the year 807, which seemed to bear some resemblance to the modern clocks: it was of brass, and showed the hours by twelve little balls of the same metal, which fell at the end of each hour, and in falling struck a bell and made it sound. There were also figures of 12 cavaliers, which at the end of each hour came forth at certain apertures or windows in the side of the clock, and shut them again, &c.

The invention of pendulum clocks is owing to the happy industry of the last age: the honour of it is disputed by Huygens and Galileo. The former, who has written a volume on the subject, declares it was first put in practice in the year 1657, and the description thereof printed in 1657. Becker, de Nova Temporis dimetiendi Theoria, anno 1680, contends for Galileo; and relates, though at second-hand, the whole history of the invention; adding, that one Tresler, at that time clock-maker to the father of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, made the first pendulum-clock at Florence, by direction of Galileo Galilei; a pattern of which was brought into Holland. The Academy del' Cimenta say expressly, that the application of the pendulum to the movement of a clock was first proposed by Galileo, and first put in practice by his son Vincenzo Galilei, in 1649. Be the inventor who he will, it is certain the invention never flourished till it came into Huygen's hands, who insists on it, that if ever Galileo thought of such a thing, he never brought it to any degree of perfection. The first pendulum-clock made in England was in the year 1662, by Mr Fromantil, a Dutchman.

Among the modern clocks, those of Strasburg and Lyons are very eminent for the richness of their furniture, and the variety of their motions and figures. In the first, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims the hour; the angel opens a door and salutes the virgin; and the Holy Spirit descends on her, &c. In the second, two horsemen encounter, and beat the hour on each other; a door opens, and there appears on the theatre the Virgin, with Jesus Christ in her arms; the Magi with their retinue, marching in order, and presenting their gifts; two trumpeters sounding all the while to proclaim the procession. These, however, are excelled by two lately made by English artists, and intended as a present from the East India Company to the emperor of China. The clocks we speak of are in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine altitude,

The wheel EE is fixed upon the axis of the pinion d; and the motion communicated to the wheel DD by the weight is transmitted to the pinion d, consequently to the wheel E E, as likewise to the pinion e and wheel FF, which moves the pinion f, upon the axis of which the crown or balance wheel GH is fixed. The pivots of the pinion ƒ play in holes of the plates LM, which are fixed horizontally to the plates TS. In a word, the motion begun by the weight is transmitted from the wheel GH to the palettes IK, and, by means of the fork UX rivetted on the palettes, communicates motion to the pendulum AB, which is suspended upon the hook A. The pendulum AB describes, round the point A, an arc of a circle alternately going and returning. If then the pendulum be once put in motion by a push of the hand, the weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon itself and it will continue to go alternately backward and forward, till the resistance of the air upon the pendulum, and the friction at the point of suspension at A, destroy the originally impressed force. But as, at every vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balancewheel GH, act so upon the palettes IK (the pivots upon the axis of these palettes play in two holes of the potence s t), that after one tooth H has communicated motion to the palette K, that tooth escapes; then the opposite tooth G acts upon the palette I, and escapes in the same manner; and thus each tooth of the wheel escapes the palettes IK, after having communicated their motion to the palettes in such a manner that the pendulum, instead of being stopt, continues to

Clock. attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious workmanship, little larger than a shilling, that strikes and repeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger sits a bird finely modelled, and set with diamonds and rubies, with its wings expanded in a flying posture, and actually flutters for a considerable time on touching a diamond button below it; the body of the bird (which contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life to it) is not the bigness of the 16th part of an inch. The lady kolds in her left hand a gold tube not much thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is a small round box, to which a circular ornament set with diamonds not larger than a sixpence is fixed, which goes round near three hours in a constant regular motion. Over the lady's head, supported by a small fluted pillar no bigger than a quill, is a double umbrella, under the largest of which a bell is fixed at a considerable distance from the clock, and seems to have no connection with it; but from which a communication is secretly conveyed to a hammer, that regularly strikes the hour and repeats the same at pleasure, by touching a dia mond button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of the lady is a gold dog; before which from the point of the chariot are two birds fixed on spiral springs; the wings and feathers of which are set with stones of va rious colours, and appear as if flying away with the chariot, which, from another secret motion, is contrived to run in a straight, circular, or any other direction; a boy that lays hold of the chariot behind, seems also to push it forward. Above the umbrella are flowers and ornaments of precious stones; and it terminates with a flying dragon set in the same manner. whole is of gold, most curiously executed, and embellished with rubies and pearls.

Plate CXLVI. fig. 1.

The

Of the general Mechanism of CLOCKS, and how they measure Time. The first figure of Plate CXLVI. is a profile of a clock: P is a weight that is suspended by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C, which is fixed upon the axis a a; the pivots b b go into holes made in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn freely. These plates are made of brass or iron, and are connected by means of four pillars ZZ; and the whole together is called the frame.

The weight P, if not restrained, would necessarily turn the barrel C with an uniformly accelerated motion, in the same manner as if the weight was falling freely from a height. But the barrel is furnished with a ratchet-wheel KK, the right side of whose teeth strikes against the click, which is fixed with a screw to the wheel DD, as represented in fig. 2. so that the action of the weight is communicated to the wheel DD, the teeth of which act upon the teeth of the small wheel d, which turns upon the pivots c c. The communication

or action of one wheel with another is called the pitching; a small wheel like d is called a pinion, and its teeth are leaves of the pinion. Several things are requisite to form a good pitching, the advantages of which are obvious in all machinery where teeth and pinions are employed. The teeth and pinion leaves should be of a proper shape, and perfectly equal among themselves; the size also of the pinion should be of a just proportion to the wheel acting into it; and its place must be at a certain distance from the wheel, beyond or within which it will make a bad pitching.

VOL. VI. Part I.

move.

The wheel EE revolves in an hour; the pivot c of the wheel passes through the plate, and is continued tor; upon the pivot is a wheel NN with a long socket fastened in the centre; upon the extremity of this socket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel NN acts upon the wheel O; the pinion of which p acts upon the wheel g g, fixed upon a socket which turns along with the wheel N. This wheel gg makes its revolution in 12 hours, upon the socket of which the hour hand is fixed.

From the above description it is easy to see, 1. That the weight p turns all the wheels, and at the same time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That the quickness of the motion of the wheel is determined by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of the pendulum.

Clock.

When the cord from which the weight is suspended is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound up again by means of a key, which goes on the square end of the arbor at Q by turning it in a contrary direction from that in which the weight descends. For this purpose, the inclined side of the teeth of the wheel R (fig. 2.) removes the click C, so that the ratchet- Fig. wheel R turns while the wheel D is at rest; but as soon as the cord is wound up, the click falls in between the teeth of the wheel D, and the right side of the teeth again act upon the end of the click, which obliges the wheel D to turn along with the barrel; and the spring A keeps the click between the teeth of the ratchet-wheel R.

We shall now explain how time is measured by the motion of the pendulum; and how the wheel E, upon Cc

the

2.