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In the days of Herodotus iron must have already come into general use, as when his interpreter reads to him an inscription on one of the Egyptian Pyramids relative to the amount of money expended on radishes, onions, and garlic for the workmen employed in its construction, he makes the reflection, that if this were true, how much more must have been paid for iron tools and bread !*

It would again seem almost incredible that these stupendous structures could themselves have been erected without the aid of steel, both for quarrying and shaping the stone, as well as for cutting the hieroglyphics so common in the earliest specimens of Egyptian architecture. If then, we allow that iron tools were employed in building these monuments, we must suppose this metal to have been in common use during the reign of the shepherd kings who conquered Egypt and occupied the throne of the Pharaohs during some part of the interval which elapsed between the birth of Abraham and the captivity of Joseph. †

In speaking of iron, Pliny says :‡ "After copper comes iron, both the most useful and most fatal instrument of life. With iron man delves the earth, plants trees, prunes his orchard, trims his vines, cutting off the older branches, and thereby throwing more vigour into the grapes by its aid man builds houses, cuts stone, and prepares a thousand other implements; but by it war, atrocity, and villany is effected and rendered common." He also describes iron as occurring in almost every part of the known world, but particularly in the Island of Elba, where the colour of the earth indicated the presence of the ore.

We are moreover informed that the ores of iron should be treated like those of copper, in order to extract the metal, and that it was a disputed point in Cappadocia, whether the principle of iron was aqueous or earthy in its nature, as the water of a certain river of that country when thrown on the earth, produced iron, precisely similar to that obtained from a furnace. He then goes on to say, that there are two distinct kinds of forges, as some produce steel (nucleus ferri),

Herod. Euterpe, ii., 125.

Russel's Egypt, 89.

Pliny, xxxiii., 14.

which is best adapted for cutting-instruments; whilst others shape it into instruments of common use, such as hammers and anvils; but that seasoning is the most important and delicate part of the operation. "It is a remarkable fact that, in the treatment of this mineral, the metal in melting is at first as liquid as the most limpid water, but becomes spongy in getting cold." *

From the extracts already quoted, it will be seen that the information which has come down to us relative to the metallurgy of the early ages, is both vague and, to some extent, uncertain; as those who describe the materials and methods employed, have themselves acquired their information from others, and were therefore more subject to commit errors, than if practically acquainted with the subject of which they treated. This circumstance has induced me to believe that a careful analytical examination of such productions of the early metallurgists, as have been discovered in different localities, would not be without interest, and I have therefore undertaken the following series of analyses.

II. Analyses of Ancient Alloys.

A.

Coins struck prior to the Christian Era.

Commerce in remote antiquity, was carried on by means of the mere exchange of commodities; and it is remarkable, that throughout the more ancient books of Scripture, as well as in the poems of Homer, no passage occurs from which it can be inferred, that stamped money was then in circulation, although mention is repeatedly made of purchases being effected through the medium of the metals, which, for that purpose, were estimated by the balance. Herodotus (I, 94) speaks of the Lydians as the first who coined gold and silver into money. The Parian Chronicle, however, ascribes the origin of coined money to the Æginetans under Phidon, King of Argos, who reigned 895 years before the Christian era. Ælian,

* Iron in Pliny's time was doubtless made by the direct, or Catalan process, and the spongy appearance above described must have arisen, not from its cooling, as he seems to suppose, but from combustion of the combined carbon, and the consequent conversion of the compound into malleable iron.

†This chronicle, as it is called, consists of a series of Greek inscriptions cut in Parian marble. It was discovered in the beginning of the seventeenth century in the island of Pharos, one of the Cyclades, and was bought and brought to England by the celebrated Thomas, Earl of Arundel. It is proved

in his "Various History," corroborates this statement, and the most competent numismatic authorities agree in considering the coins of Egina as the most ancient specimens of stamped money which have come down to us. These are of silver, and bear on the upper side the figure of a turtle, and on the reverse an indented mark, as if the metal at the time of striking had been held on a puncheon, which, from the force of the blow, appears to have left a deep impression.

The coins of Lydia would seem to come next in point of antiquity, and after them, the early Darics of the Persian kings, which occur in both silver and gold. Pinkerton observes" The first Grecian copper coins with which we are acquainted, were those of Gelo, King of Syracuse, about 490 years before the birth of Christ. These were called Chalci, or pieces of brass; others of a smaller size were denominated Lepta, or Kerma, from being change for the poor." He is also of opinion, that the Greeks had no gold coinage before the time of Philip of Macedon, and that Athens had no gold money before the Peloponnesian war.*

The first Roman coinage was of brass, and is said to have taken place under Servius Tullius, about five centuries before the Christian era, and seems to have been confined to the as or as, which on one side bore the two-faced head of Janus, and on the other the prow of a ship, a symbol always attending Janus, because he arrived in Italy by sea.

Varro,† however, informs us, that the first Roman coins bore the stamp of a bull, ram, or some other cattle, and it is therefore probable that the As with the head of Janus, was not the very first design issued from the Roman mint.

However this may be, soon after the first coinage of brass, the parts of the As of a value proportionate to their weight were also produced. The Semis, or half As, marked S., had commonly the head of Jupiter laureated; the Triens, or third, marked 0000, as being originally four ounces, had the head of Minerva; the Quadrans, or quarter, 000, the head of Hercules, wrapt in a lion's skin; the Sextans, or sixth, 00, that of Mercury with a cap and wings; and finally the Unica, marked 0, had the head of Rome.

All the above coins were cast, as were also those of the Etruscans from whom the Romans learnt the art of moulding their money; and that several were usually obtained at each melting is evident from the fact that three or four have occasionally been found joined by runners of the metal of which they are made. Most of the specimens also retain the marks produced, by cutting off these threads, as likewise the lines indicating the division of the two parts of which the mould was composed.

by internal evidence that this chronicle was engraved 264 years before the birth of Christ, most likely for Athens.

* Pinkerton on Medals, I, 77.

† Varro de Re. Rust. I, 2.

Pinkerton on Medals, 1, 101.

[blocks in formation]

Weight, 4150 grains. Specific gravity, 8.59. Specific gravity, 8.59. Obverse: The head of Janus. Reverse: A ship.

The metal of which it was composed, presented an iron-grey appearance when broken, but if cut, the peculiar hue of copper was immediately perceived. Large cavities were also observed in the substance of the alloy, occasioned by bubbles of air, which being shut up in the mould, had caused numerous holes in the casting. For analysis vide Table.

Semis. Same date as the foregoing.

This coin bears on one side the head of Jupiter laureated, and on the other the letter S. Its weight, although not quite perfect, was 1997 grains. Specific gravity, 8-64. For analysis vide Table.

Quadrans.

This is supposed to be of the same date as the preceding, being of similar rude workmanship and brittle metal. The specimen examined bore on one side the head of Hercules, and on the other a design in which the marks 000 were conspicuous. Its weight was 970 grains; its specific gravity, 8.58. For analysis vide Table.

Hiero I. B.C. 478.

Hiero I. succeeded his brother Gelo as King of Syracuse, 478 years before our era, and reigned eleven years.

The coin examined was of a yellow colour, and the metal bright and close in its grain, being extremely hard and difficult to cut. Specific gravity, 8.72. For analysis vide Table.

Alexander the Great. About B.C. 335.

This coin weighed 108 grains, and posed had a specific gravity of 8.69.

the metal of which it was comFor analysis vide Table.

Philippus III.

Natural son of Philip II. and half brother of Alexander, whom he succeeded as King of Macedonia, in the year 323 before our era. The coin examined weighed 83.3 grains, and bore on one side a head, and on the other a man on horseback. This metal resembled that of which the coin of Alexander was composed, and had a specific gravity=8.71. For analysis vide Table.

[blocks in formation]

Weight about 164 grains. Specific gravity=8·59. For analysis vide Table.

*M. Le Normand considers the Roman As of this type, to have been coined about B.C. 385. Other authors, however, regard the date above given, as being more correct.

=

Copper Coin of Athens.

Weight 89.5 grs. of Minerva. Reverse: hurling a thunderbolt.

Egyptian.

Specific gravity

8.61.
Specific gravity=8.61. Obverse: Head
A naked figure, represented in the act of
Metal very hard. For analysis vide Table.

Ptolemy IX. About B.C. 70.

Auletes (The Flute-player).

This coin was made of a very brittle metal, and weighed 337 grs. On one side it bore the impression of a bearded head, and on the other an eagle holding a thunderbolt. Specific gravity 8.81. For analysis vide Table.

Pompey. First Brass.

B.C. 53.

=

Weight, 309 grs. Specific gravity, 8.70. Obverse: Head of Janus. Reverse: Prow of a ship.

This coin was evidently cast, and the metal is very hard and brittle, resembling in this respect the alloy employed in the original as, before its reduction in weight. For analysis vide Table.

Coin of the Atilia Family. B.C. 45.

This coin bears, on one side, the head of Janus; and on the other the prow of a ship, with the word Roma beneath it. The metal is extremely hard and brittle, but has been struck with a die. Weight =466 grs. Specific gravity=9-02. For analysis vide Table. Julius and Augustus. About B.C. 42.

Weight, 342 grs. Table.

Specific gravity, 8.64.

For analysis vide

Augustus and Agrippa. B.c. 30.

Conquest of Egypt.

Weight, 238 grs.

Specific gravity 8.65.

This coin bears two heads on one side; and on the other a crocodile, with Col: Nem. Metal very hard and brittle.

vide Table.

For analysis

Large Brass of the Cassia Family. About B.C. 20. Weight 365 grs. Specific gravity =8.52.

Metal of a yellow colour, and softer than any of the foregoing. For analysis vide Table.

B.

Analyses of Ancient Arms and Cutting Instruments.

It would be impossible to determine the dates of these relics of former times with the same accuracy with which we may ascertain the ages of coins; and I shall therefore merely give the weight and dimensions of the various specimens which have been examined, and endeavour to adduce such evidence as may shew their great antiquity, without attempting to specify the precise dates at which they

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